用戶:Lokionly/SandBox2
The fauna of Australia consists of a huge variety of unique animals; some 83% of mammals, 89% of reptiles, 90% of fish and insects and 93% of amphibians that inhabit the continent are endemic to Australia.[1] This high level of endemism can be attributed to the continent's long geographic isolation, tectonic stability, and the effects of an unusual pattern of climate change on the soil and flora over geological time. A unique feature of Australia's fauna is the relative scarcity of native placental mammals. Consequently the marsupials—a group of mammals that raise their young in a pouch, including the macropods, possums and dasyuromorphs—occupy many of the ecological niches placental animals occupy elsewhere in the world. Australia is home to two of the five known extant species of monotremes and has numerous venomous species, which include the Platypus, spiders, scorpions, octopus, jellyfish, molluscs, stonefish, and stingrays. Uniquely, Australia has more venomous than non-venomous species of snakes.
The settlement of Australia by Indigenous Australians more than 40,000 years ago, and by Europeans from 1788, has significantly affected the fauna. Hunting, the introduction of non-native species, and land-management practices involving the modification or destruction of habitats have led to numerous extinctions. Some examples include the Paradise Parrot, Pig-footed Bandicoot and the Broad-faced Potoroo. Unsustainable land use still threatens the survival of many species. To target threats to the survival of its fauna, Australia has passed wide-ranging federal and state legislation and established numerous protected areas.
Origins
Both geologic and climatic events helped to make Australia's fauna unique. Australia was once part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana, which also included South America, Africa, India and Antarctica. Gondwana began to break up 140 million years ago (MYA); 50 MYA Australia separated from Antarctica and was relatively isolated until the collision of the Indo-Australian Plate with Asia in the Miocene era 5.3 MYA. The establishment and evolution of the present-day fauna was apparently shaped by the unique climate and the geology of the continent. As Australia drifted, it was, to some extent, isolated from the effects of global climate change. The unique fauna that originated in Gondwana, such as the marsupials, survived and adapted in Australia.
After the Miocene, fauna of Asian origin were able to establish themselves in Australia. The Wallace Line—the hypothetical line separating the zoogeographical regions of Asia and Australasia—marks the tectonic boundary between the Eurasian and Indo-Australian plates. This continental boundary prevented the formation of land bridges and resulted in a distinct zoological distribution, with limited overlap, of most Asian and Australian fauna, with the exception of birds. Following the emergence of the circumpolar current in the mid-Oligocene era (some 15 MYA), the Australian climate became increasingly arid, giving rise to a diverse group of arid-specialised organisms, just as the wet tropical and seasonally wet areas gave rise to their own uniquely adapted species.
哺乳動物
澳洲擁有豐富的哺乳動物的化石歷史，及極為豐富的哺乳類物種，而估當中最大多數的則是有袋類。僅分佈在澳洲及新畿內亞的單孔目是現存唯一會下蛋的哺乳動物，包括外形奇特的鴨嘴獸及被尖刺覆蓋的針鼴。化石紀錄顯示單孔目物種早於白堊紀前期，約1萬4千5百萬至9千9百萬年前就已出現在澳洲，[2]而有袋類及胎盤類的哺乳動物的化石則約於漸新世的5千6百萬至3千4百萬年前出現。[3]雖然在漸新世時有袋類及胎盤類物種均共同存在於澳洲大陸上，但這群遠古的物種中只有有袋類存活下來。胎盤類哺乳動物直至中新世才再在澳洲上出現，當時澳大利亞大陸逐漸向印尼靠攏，如蝙蝠及齧齒目等的化石紀錄証明了這一點。有袋類在澳洲得到極大的空間進行演化，得以適應各種的生態位，猶如在歐亞大陸及北美等地的胎盤類哺乳動物們所佔據的生態位——也就是趨同演化的最佳例証。[4]例如澳洲的頂尖掠食者，袋狼就如其他大陸上廣泛分佈的狼一樣；袋鼯科與鼯鼠族擁有極類似的適應飛行構造，以協助牠們在密林中穿梭；袋食蟻獸（Myrmecobius fasciatus）與食蟻獸同樣是挖掘形的食蟲類生物。
烏類
澳洲及其鄰近地區有近800種鳥類；當中近350種是這動物地理分區——包括澳洲、新畿內亞及新西蘭的特有種。有關鳥類的化石紀錄相當貧乏，但有証據指出現存物種的祖先可追溯至晚漸新世。[5] 擁有與岡瓦納大陸年代一樣久遠的現存物種包括鴕形目的鴯鶓及南方鶴鴕（Casuarius casuarius），塚雉科（Megapodiidae）的眼斑塚雉（Leipoa ocellata）及澳洲叢塚雉（Alectura lathami），及大批鸚鵡等。澳洲的鸚鵡佔了全球鸚鵡數目的六分一，包括為數不少的鳳頭鸚鵡。笑翠鳥（Dacelo）也是澳洲代表性鳥類，牠們是翠鳥當中最大的種類。一如其名，牠們會發出嘹亮而彷如人類的笑聲。
澳洲也有極多有特色的雀形目鳥類，包括細尾鷯鶯科、燕鵙科、鴝鶲科（Petroicidae）、刺嘴鶯科（Acanthiza）、斑啄果鳥科（Pardalotidae）、吸蜜鳥科（Meliphagidae）、短嘴旋木雀科（Climacteridae）等，還有色彩亮麗的琴鳥、天堂鳥及園丁鳥（Ptilonorhynchidae）等。緞藍亭鳥（Ptilonorhynchus violaceus）則是演化心理學家的愛鳥，牠們的求偶儀式極為複雜，雄鳥透過建立放滿藍色及充滿閃亮物品的涼亭以吸引伴侶。
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相對於近年才殖民至澳洲的歐亞物種包括有燕子、百靈鳥、鶇科、太陽鳥科、扇尾鶯屬（cisticola）及一些猛禽，包括大型的楔尾鷹（Aquila audax）。人類也為澳洲帶來不少外地物種，一些種如紅額金翅雀及歐金翅雀（Carduelis chloris）等與當地鳥類和平共存，但大部分都對當地生態系統造成不少的破壞，當中包括歐洲八哥、家八哥、黑鶇及麻雀等，都對當地生態系構成一定的壓力。
澳洲的海岸也吸引了近200種海鳥的到訪，包括不少候鳥。澳洲位於候鳥遷徙路線——東亞－澳大利西亞飛行路線的最南端，候鳥從俄羅斯遠東地區及阿拉斯加州的凍土原，途經東南亞後抵達澳洲及新西蘭。每年便有近2百萬頭的候鳥經此路徑來回往返。除了候鳥外，澳洲也有其本土的海鳥留鳥，包括體型龐大的澳洲鵜鶘（Pelecanus conspicillatus）就廣泛分佈在澳洲的水域內，最小的企鵝，小藍企鵝也在澳洲大陸上繁衍生活。
兩棲及爬蟲類
澳洲共有四科原生青蛙及一種被引入的蟾蜍，蔗蟾蜍（Bufo marinus）。1935年，蔗蟾蜍被認為能控制當地甘蔗田的害蟲而被引入，但到目前已演變成生態災難。牠們廣泛分佈於整個澳洲北部，並以每年50公里的強大速度擴展地盤，與本地食草生物競爭食物，並且會釋放出對人畜均有害的毒素。龜蟾科（Myobatrachidae），或稱作肌蛙科，是澳洲境內最大的科，共21屬120種。此科較有名的物種有科羅澳擬蟾（Pseudophryne corroboree），也稱作澳洲夜宴蛙，因其色彩鮮艷及特殊的繁殖方式而為人熟悉，更重要的是牠們正站在滅絕邊緣，全球剩下不到250頭野外個體。雨蛙科的樹蛙，分佈在雨量豐富的北部及東岸，境內共3屬77個種。姬蛙科（Microhylidae），或稱作狹口蛙科的2個屬18種都只分佈在雨林內，澳洲境內最小的青蛙，短掘蛙（Cophixalus exiguus）也是這一科的物種。而在全球佔壟斷地位的蛙科，澳洲境內卻只有一種。與全球其他地區一樣，澳洲近年也出現了嚴峻的兩棲動物種群下降問題。雖然到目前為止還沒有絕對的答案，但由壺菌（chytrid）引起的壺菌病無可置疑地佔一席位。
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澳洲既有鹹水及淡水的鱷魚。常被稱作鹹水鱷的灣鱷是現存最大的鱷魚品種，最長體長可達7米及重達1500公斤，其強大的咬合力足以使人致命，過去亦曾發生人命傷亡的事故。生活於澳洲北部的淡水河流及濕地內，也因其皮革及肉的價值而廣人所養殖。澳洲淡水鱷也僅生活在澳洲北部，其細小的體型及咬合力使牠對人類的威脅極低。
澳洲的海岸也是共六種海龜的旅遊聖地：綠蠵龜、玳瑁、麗龜、蠵龜、棱皮龜及平背海龜（Natator depressus），在澳洲水域內都是受保護的物種。共8屬29種來自蛇頸龜科（Chelidae）的淡水龜分佈在澳洲當地，包括當地最小及極危的澳洲短頸龜；豬鼻龜是唯一非蛇頸龜科的淡水龜，正因其獨特的長相而受到瘋狂捕撈。澳洲及南極洲是唯一沒有陸龜品種的大陸。
澳洲的毒蛇數目也是不尋常的多，當毒蛇在其他大陸屬於小數時，澳洲毒蛇的數目卻較沒有毒的蛇為多。共有七個科約169種的蛇在澳洲生活，包括全球最毒的數種，如內陸太攀蛇、太攀蛇、虎蛇及東部擬眼鏡蛇（Pseudonaja textilis）等。這些來自眼鏡蛇科的物種在澳洲相當繁盛，全球200種眼睛蛇當中，近一半的86種就是澳洲的特有種。屬於海蛇科的有33種在澳洲分佈，大部分均身懷劇毒，特別是有全球最毒的蛇類之稱的貝爾徹海蛇。瘰鱗蛇科三種中的兩種在澳洲的海域內有分佈，而全球數量最多最突出的游蛇科，在澳洲則只有11種，而且都不是特有種，並被認為是在較近期的情況下才來臨澳洲。蟒科有15種，而以蟲為食的盲蛇科則有31種。
There are more lizards in Australia than anywhere else in the world, with representatives of five families. There are 114 species in 18 genera of gecko found throughout the Australian continent. The Pygopodidae is a family of limbless lizards endemic to the Australian region; of the 34 species from eight genera, only one species does not occur in Australia. The Agamidae or Dragon lizards are represented by 66 species in 13 genera, including the Thorny Devil, Bearded Dragon and Frill-necked Lizard. There are 26 species of monitor lizard, family Varanidae, in Australia, where they are commonly known as goannas. The largest Australian monitor is the Perentie, which can reach up to 2 m in length. There are 389 species of skink from 38 genera, comprising about 50% of the total Australian lizard fauna; this group includes the blue-tongued lizards.
Fish
More than 4,400 species of fish inhabit Australia's waterways;[6] of these, 90% are endemic. However, because of the relative scarcity of freshwater waterways, Australia has only 170 species of freshwater fish. Two families of freshwater fish have ancient origins: the arowana or "bony tongues," and the Queensland lungfish. The Queensland lungfish is the most primitive of the lungfish, having evolved before Australia separated from Gondwana. One of the smallest freshwater fish, peculiar to the southwest of Western Australia, is the salamanderfish, which can survive desiccation in the dry season by burrowing into mud. Other families with a potentially Gondwanan origin include the Retropinnidae, Galaxiidae, Aplochitonidae and Percichthyidae. Apart from the ancient freshwater species, 70% of Australia's freshwater fish have affinities with tropical Indo-Pacific marine species that have adapted to freshwater.[7] Nevertheless, fossil evidence indicates that many of these freshwater species are still ancient in origin. These species include freshwater lampreys, herrings, catfish, rainbowfish, and some 50 species of gudgeon, including the Sleepy Cod. Native freshwater game fish include the Barramundi, Murray Cod, and Golden Perch. Two species of endangered freshwater shark are found in the Northern Territory.
Several exotic freshwater fish species, including brown, brook and rainbow trout, Atlantic and Chinook salmon, redfin perch, carp and mosquitofish, have been introduced to Australian waterways.[8] The mosquitofish is a particularly aggressive species known for harassing and nipping the fins of other fish. It has been linked to declines and localised extinctions of several small native fish species. The introduced trout species have had serious negative impacts on a number of upland native fish species including trout cod, Macquarie perch and galaxias species as well as other upland fauna such as the Spotted Tree Frog. The carp is strongly implicated in the dramatic loss in waterweed, decline of small native fish species and permanently elevated levels of turbidity in the Murray-Darling Basin of southwest Australia.
Most of Australia's fish species are marine. Groups of interest include the moray eels and squirrelfish, as well as the pipefish and seahorses, whose males incubate their partner's eggs in a specialised pouch. There are 80 species of grouper in Australian waters, including one of the world's biggest bony fish, the Giant Grouper, which can grow as large as 2.7 m and weigh up to 400 kg. The trevally, a group of 50 species of silver schooling fish, and the snappers are popular species for commercial fishing. The Great Barrier Reef supports a huge variety of small- and medium-sized reef fish, including the damselfish, butterflyfish, angelfish, gobies, cardinalfish, wrassees, triggerfish and surgeonfish. There are several venomous fish, among them several species of stonefish and pufferfish and the red lionfish, all of which have toxins that can kill humans. There are 11 venomous species of stingray, the largest of which is the smooth stingray. The barracudas are one of the reef's largest species. However, large reef fish should not be eaten for fear of ciguatera poisoning.
Sharks inhabit all the coastal waters and estuarine habitats of Australia’s coast. There are 166 species, including 30 species of requiem shark, 32 of catshark, six of wobbegong shark, and 40 of dogfish shark. There are three species from the family Heterodontidae: the Port Jackson shark, the zebra bullhead shark and the crested bullhead shark. In 2004, there were 12 unprovoked shark attacks in Australia, of which two were fatal.[9] Only 3 species of shark pose a significant threat to humans: the bull shark, the tiger shark and the great white shark. Some popular beaches in Queensland and New South Wales are protected by shark netting, a method that has reduced the population of both dangerous and harmless shark species through accidental entanglement. The overfishing of sharks has also significantly reduced shark numbers in Australian waters, and several species are now endangered. A megamouth shark was found on a Perth beach in 1988; very little is known about this species, but this discovery may indicate the presence of the species in Australian coastal waters.
Invertebrates
| Taxonomic group | Estimated number of species described | Estimated total number of species in Australia |
|---|---|---|
| Porifera | 1,416 | ~3,500 |
| Cnidaria | 1,270 | ~1,760 |
| Platyhelminthes | 1,506 | ~10,800 |
| Acanthocephala | 57 | ~160 |
| Nematoda | 2,060 | 30,000 |
| Mollusca | 9,336 | ~12,250 |
| Annelida | 2,125 | ~4,230 |
| Onychophora | 56 | ~56 |
| Crustacea | 6,426 | ~9,500 |
| Arachnida | 5,666 | ~27,960 |
| Insecta | 58,532 | ~83,860 |
| Echinodermata | 1,206 | ~1,400 |
| Other invertebrates | 2,929 | ~7,230 |
| Modified from: Williams et al. 2001.[1] | ||
Of the estimated 200,000 animal species in Australia, about 96% are invertebrates. While the full extent of invertebrate diversity is uncertain, 90% of insects and molluscs are considered endemic.[1] Invertebrates occupy many ecological niches and are important in all ecosystems as decomposers, pollinators, and food sources. The largest group of invertebrates is the insects, comprising 75% of Australia's known species of animals. The most diverse insect orders are the Coleoptera, with 28,200 species of beetles and weevils, the Lepidoptera with 20,816 species including butterflies and moths, and 12,781 species of Hymenoptera, including the ants, bees and wasps. Order Diptera, which includes the flies and mosquitoes, comprises 7,786 species, Order Hemiptera, including bugs, aphids and hoppers, comprises 5,650 species; and there are 2,827 species of order Orthoptera, including grasshoppers, crickets and katydids.[10] Introduced species that pose a significant threat to native species include the European wasp, the red fire ant, the yellow crazy ant and feral honeybees which compete with native bees.
Australia has a wide variety of arachnids, including 135 species of spider that are familiar enough to have common names. There are numerous highly venomous species, including the notorious Sydney funnel-web and redback spiders, whose bites can be deadly. There are thousands of species of mites and ticks from order Acarina. Australia also has eight species of pseudoscorpion and nine scorpion species.
In the Annelida (sub)class Oligochaeta there are many families of aquatic worms, and for native terrestrial worms: the Enchytraeidae (pot worms) and the "true" earthworms in families Acanthodrilidae, Octochaetidae and Megascolecidae. The latter includes the world's largest earthworm, the giant Gippsland earthworm, found only in Gippsland, Victoria. On average they reach 80 cm in length, but specimens up to 3.7 m in length have been found.
The large family Parastacidae includes 124 species of Australian freshwater crayfish. These include the world's smallest crayfish, the swamp crayfish, which does not exceed 30 mm in length, and the world's largest crayfish, the Tasmanian giant freshwater crayfish, measuring up to 76 cm long and weighing 4.5 kg. The crayfish genus Cherax includes the common yabby, in addition to the farmed species marron and Queensland red claw. Species from the genus Engaeus, commonly known as the land crayfish, are also found in Australia. Engaeus species are not entirely aquatic, because they spend most of their lives living in burrows. Australia has seven species of freshwater crab from the genus Austrothelphusa. These crabs live burrowed into the banks of waterways and can plug their burrows, surviving through several years of drought. The extremely primitive freshwater mountain shrimp, found only in Tasmania, are a unique group, resembling species found in the fossil record from 200 MYA.
A huge variety of marine invertebrates are found in Australian waters, with the Great Barrier Reef an important source of this diversity. Families include the Porifera or sea sponges, the Cnidaria (includes the jellyfish, corals and sea anemones, comb jellies), the Echinodermata (includes the sea urchins, sea stars, brittle stars, sea cucumbers, the lamp shells) and the Mollusca (includes snails, slugs, limpets, squid, octopus, cockles, oysters, clams, and chitons). Venomous invertebrates include the box jellyfish, the blue-ringed octopus, and ten species of cone snail, which can cause respiratory failure and death in humans. The crown-of-thorns starfish usually inhabits the Reef at low densities. However, under conditions that are not yet well understood, they can reproduce to reach an unsustainable population density when coral is devoured at a rate faster than it can regenerate. This presents a serious reef management issue. Other problematic marine invertebrates include the native species purple sea-urchin and the white urchin, which have been able to take over marine habitats and form urchin barrens due to the over harvesting of their natural predators which include abalone and rock lobster. Introduced invertebrate pests include the Asian mussel, New Zealand green-lipped mussel, black-striped mussel and the Northern Pacific seastar, all of which displace native shellfish.
There are many unique marine crustaceans in Australian waters. The best-known class, to which all the edible species of crustacean belong, is Malacostraca. The warm waters of northern Australia are home to many species of decapod crustaceans, including crabs, false crabs, hermit crabs, lobsters, shrimps, and prawns. The Peracarids, including the amphipods and isopods, are more diverse in the colder waters of southern Australia. Less-well-known marine groups include the classes Remipedia, Cephalocarida, Branchiopoda, Maxillopoda (which includes the barnacles, copepods and fish lice), and the Ostracoda. Notable species include the Tasmanian giant crab, the second largest crab species in the world, found in deep water, and weighing up to 13 kg, and the Australian spiny lobsters, such as the Western rock lobster, which are distinct from other lobster species as they do not have claws.
Invasive species
Introduction of exotic fauna in Australia by design, accident and natural processes has led to a considerable number of invasive, feral and pest species which have flourished and now impact the environment adversely. Introduced organisms affect the environment in a number of ways. Rabbits render land economically useless. Red Foxes affect local endemic fauna by predation while the cane toad poisons the predators by being eaten. The invasive species include birds (Indian Mynah) and fish (common carp), insects (red imported fire ant) and molluscs (Asian mussel). The problem is compounded by invasive exotic flora as well as introduced diseases, fungi and parasites.
Costly, laborious and time-consuming efforts at control of these species has met with little success and this continues to be a major problem area in the conservation of Australia's biodiversity.
Human impact and conservation
For at least 40,000 years, Australia's fauna played an integral role in the traditional lifestyles of Indigenous Australians, who exploited many species as a source of food and skins. Vertebrates commonly harvested included macropods, opossums, seals, fish and the Short-tailed Shearwater, most commonly known as the Muttonbird. Invertebrates used as food included insects like the Bogong moth and larvae collectively called witchetty grubs and molluscs. The use of fire-stick farming, in which large swathes of bushland were burnt to facilitate hunting, modified both flora and fauna — and are thought to have contributed to the extinction of large herbivores with a specialised diet, such as the flightless birds from the genus Genyornis.[12] The role of hunting and landscape modification by aboriginal people in the extinction of the Australian megafauna is debated.[13]
The impact of Aborigines on native species populations is widely considered to be less significant than that of the European settlers,[13] whose impact on the landscape has been on a relatively large scale. Since European settlement, direct exploitation of native fauna, habitat destruction and the introduction of exotic predators and competitive herbivores has led to the extinction of some 27 mammal, 23 bird and 4 frog species. Much of Australia's fauna is protected by legislation; a notable exception is kangaroos, which are prolific and are regularly culled. The federal Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 was created to meet Australia's obligations as a signatory to the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity. This act protects all native fauna and provides for the identification and protection of threatened species. In each state and territory, there is statutory listing of threatened species. At present, 380 animal species are classified as either endangered or threatened under the EPBC Act, and other species are protected under state and territory legislation.[14] More broadly, a complete cataloguing of all the species within Australia has been undertaken, a key step in the conservation of Australian fauna and biodiversity. In 1973, the federal government established the Australian Biological Resources Study (ABRS), which coordinates research in the taxonomy, identification, classification and distribution of flora and fauna. The ABRS maintains free online databases cataloguing much of the described Australian flora and fauna. Impacts such as the illegal setting of traps in rivers affect animals such as the Australian platypus, along with lack of awareness each year an average of 2-5 australians lose their lives to what is presumed a safe creature. The key is understanding of Australia's diverse wildlife and fauna, what seems safe is often deadly.
Australia is a member of the International Whaling Commission and is strongly opposed to commercial whaling—all Cetacean species are protected in Australian waters. Australia is also a signatory to the CITES agreement and prohibits the export of endangered species. Protected areas have been created in every state and territory to protect and preserve the country's unique ecosystems. These protected areas include national parks and other reserves, as well as 64 wetlands registered under the Ramsar Convention and 16 World Heritage Sites. As of 2002, 10.8% (774,619.51 km²) of the total land area of Australia is within protected areas.[15] Protected marine zones have been created in many areas to preserve marine biodiversity; as of 2002, these areas cover about 7% (646,000 km²) of Australia's marine jurisdiction.[16] The Great Barrier Reef is managed by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority under specific federal and state legislation. Some of Australia's fisheries are already overexploited,[17] and quotas have been set for the sustainable harvest of many marine species.
The State of the Environment Report, 2001, prepared by independent researchers for the federal government, concluded that the condition of the environment and environmental management in Australia had worsened since the previous report in 1996. Of particular relevance to wildlife conservation, the report indicated that many processes—such as salinity, changing hydrological conditions, land clearing, fragmentation of ecosystems, poor management of the coastal environment, and invasive species—pose major problems for protecting Australia's biodiversity.[18]
參見
- Extinct Australian fauna
- Recently extinct Australian animals: from 1788 to present;
- Australian megafauna: from first human colonisation to 1788
註腳
- ^ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Williams, J. et al. 2001. Biodiversity, Australia State of the Environment Report 2001 (Theme Report), CSIRO Publishing on behalf of the Department of the Environment and Heritage, Canberra. ISBN 0-643-06749-3 .pdf[失效連結]
- ^ Archer, M. et al., 1985. First Mesozoic mammal from Australia-an early Cretaceous monotreme. Nature 318:363–366
- ^ Godthelp, H. et al. 1992. Earliest known Australian Tertiary mammal fauna. Nature, 356:514–516
- ^ Townsend, C.R. et al. 2002. The Ecology of Evolution[失效連結], in Essentials of Ecology 2nd edition. Blackwell Publishers ISBN 1-4051-0328-0
- ^ 澳洲博物館. 2001. Fossil history of birds: fossil history overview
- ^ CSIRO. 2004. Standard Names of Australian Fish
- ^ Williams, W.D. and Allen, G.R. 1987. Origins and adaptations of the fauna of inland waters. In D.W. Walton Ed. Fauna of Australia, Volume 1A. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.
- ^ Wager, R. and Jackson, P. 1993. The Action Plan for Australian Freshwater Fishes, Queensland Department of Primary Industries Fisheries Division ISBN 0-642-16818-0
- ^ International Shark Attack File. 2005. SAF Statistics for the Worldwide Locations with the Highest Shark Attack Activity Since 1990, Florida Museum of Natural History
- ^ CSIRO. Insects and their allies
- ^ Shattuck, S. and Barnett, N. 2001. Australian Ants Online, CSIRO Entomology
- ^ Miller, G. H. 2005. Ecosystem Collapse in Pleistocene Australia and a Human Role in Megafaunal Extinction. Science, 309:287–290 PMID 16002615
- ^ 13.0 13.1 Thomson, J.M. et al. 1987. Human Exploitation of and Introductions to the Australian Fauna. In D.W. Walton Ed. Fauna of Australia, Volume 1A. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.
- ^ Department of the Environment and Heritage. EPBC Act List of Threatened Fauna
- ^ Department of the Environment and Heritage. 2002. Summary of Terrestrial Protected Areas in Australia by Type[失效連結]
- ^ Department of the Environment and Heritage. 2002. About the National Representative System of Marine Protected Areas (NRSMPA)
- ^ Newton, G and Boshier, J, eds. 2001. Coasts and Oceans Theme Report, Australia State of the Environment Report 2001 (Theme Report), CSIRO Publishing on behalf of the Department of the Environment and Heritage, Canberra. ISBN 0-643-06749-3 .pdf[失效連結]
- ^ Australian State of the Environment Committee. 2001. Australia State of the Environment 2001, Independent Report to the Commonwealth Minister for the Environment and Heritage. CSIRO Publishing on behalf of the Department of the Environment and Heritage ISBN 0-643-06745-0 .pdf[失效連結]
參考書目
- Berra, T. M. 1998. A Natural History of Australia. Academic Press ISBN 0-12-093155-9
- McKay, G.M. et al. 1989. Biogeography and Phylogeny of Eutheria. In Fauna of Australia (D. W. Walton and B. J. Richardson, eds.). Mammalia, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 1B:1–1227.
- Strahan, R. ed. 1983. The Australian Museum Complete Book of Australian Mammals. Angus & Robertson ISBN 0-207-14454-0
- Walton, D. W. Ed. 1987. Fauna of Australia, Volume 1A. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra. ISBN 0-644-06055-7
- Wells, A. Ed. 2005. Australian Faunal Directory, Department of Environment and Heritage
外部連結
- Australian Biological Resources Study
- Australian Insect Common names
- Australian Museum, Australia's natural history museum
- Crustacean Gallery- Marine crustacean from southeastern Australia
- Fauna of Australia, full contents of Mammalia and some of Amphibia & Reptilia available in .pdf format
- Fossil Sites of Australia
- University of Melbourne Australian Venom Research Unit, descriptions and images of many venomous species