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The fauna of Australia consists of a huge variety of unique animals; some 83% of mammals, 89% of reptiles, 90% of fish and insects and 93% of amphibians that inhabit the continent are endemic to Australia.[1] This high level of endemism can be attributed to the continent's long geographic isolation, tectonic stability, and the effects of an unusual pattern of climate change on the soil and flora over geological time. A unique feature of Australia's fauna is the relative scarcity of native placental mammals. Consequently the marsupials—a group of mammals that raise their young in a pouch, including the macropods, possums and dasyuromorphs—occupy many of the ecological niches placental animals occupy elsewhere in the world. Australia is home to two of the five known extant species of monotremes and has numerous venomous species, which include the Platypus, spiders, scorpions, octopus, jellyfish, molluscs, stonefish, and stingrays. Uniquely, Australia has more venomous than non-venomous species of snakes.
The settlement of Australia by Indigenous Australians more than 40,000 years ago, and by Europeans from 1788, has significantly affected the fauna. Hunting, the introduction of non-native species, and land-management practices involving the modification or destruction of habitats have led to numerous extinctions. Some examples include the Paradise Parrot, Pig-footed Bandicoot and the Broad-faced Potoroo. Unsustainable land use still threatens the survival of many species. To target threats to the survival of its fauna, Australia has passed wide-ranging federal and state legislation and established numerous protected areas.
Origins
Both geologic and climatic events helped to make Australia's fauna unique. Australia was once part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana, which also included South America, Africa, India and Antarctica. Gondwana began to break up 140 million years ago (MYA); 50 MYA Australia separated from Antarctica and was relatively isolated until the collision of the Indo-Australian Plate with Asia in the Miocene era 5.3 MYA. The establishment and evolution of the present-day fauna was apparently shaped by the unique climate and the geology of the continent. As Australia drifted, it was, to some extent, isolated from the effects of global climate change. The unique fauna that originated in Gondwana, such as the marsupials, survived and adapted in Australia.
After the Miocene, fauna of Asian origin were able to establish themselves in Australia. The Wallace Line—the hypothetical line separating the zoogeographical regions of Asia and Australasia—marks the tectonic boundary between the Eurasian and Indo-Australian plates. This continental boundary prevented the formation of land bridges and resulted in a distinct zoological distribution, with limited overlap, of most Asian and Australian fauna, with the exception of birds. Following the emergence of the circumpolar current in the mid-Oligocene era (some 15 MYA), the Australian climate became increasingly arid, giving rise to a diverse group of arid-specialised organisms, just as the wet tropical and seasonally wet areas gave rise to their own uniquely adapted species.
哺乳动物
澳洲拥有丰富的哺乳动物的化石历史，及极为丰富的哺乳类物种，而估当中最大多数的则是有袋类。仅分布在澳洲及新几内亚的单孔目是现存唯一会下蛋的哺乳动物，包括外形奇特的鸭嘴兽及被尖刺覆盖的针鼹。化石纪录显示单孔目物种早于白垩纪前期，约1万4千5百万至9千9百万年前就已出现在澳洲，[2]而有袋类及胎盘类的哺乳动物的化石则约于渐新世的5千6百万至3千4百万年前出现。[3]虽然在渐新世时有袋类及胎盘类物种均共同存在于澳洲大陆上，但这群远古的物种中只有有袋类存活下来。胎盘类哺乳动物直至中新世才再在澳洲上出现，当时澳大利亚大陆逐渐向印尼靠拢，如蝙蝠及啮齿目等的化石纪录证明了这一点。有袋类在澳洲得到极大的空间进行演化，得以适应各种的生态位，犹如在欧亚大陆及北美等地的胎盘类哺乳动物们所占据的生态位——也就是趋同演化的最佳例证。[4]例如澳洲的顶尖掠食者，袋狼就如其他大陆上广泛分布的狼一样；袋鼯科与鼯鼠族拥有极类似的适应飞行构造，以协助它们在密林中穿梭；袋食蚁兽（Myrmecobius fasciatus）与食蚁兽同样是挖掘形的食虫类生物。
乌类
澳洲及其邻近地区有近800种鸟类；当中近350种是这动物地理分区——包括澳洲、新几内亚及新西兰的特有种。有关鸟类的化石纪录相当贫乏，但有证据指出现存物种的祖先可追溯至晚渐新世。[5] 拥有与冈瓦纳大陆年代一样久远的现存物种包括鸵形目的鸸鹋及南方鹤鸵（Casuarius casuarius），冢雉科（Megapodiidae）的眼斑冢雉（Leipoa ocellata）及澳洲丛冢雉（Alectura lathami），及大批鹦鹉等。澳洲的鹦鹉占了全球鹦鹉数目的六分一，包括为数不少的凤头鹦鹉。笑翠鸟（Dacelo）也是澳洲代表性鸟类，它们是翠鸟当中最大的种类。一如其名，它们会发出嘹亮而彷如人类的笑声。
澳洲也有极多有特色的雀形目鸟类，包括细尾鹩莺科、燕鵙科、鸲鹟科（Petroicidae）、刺嘴莺科（Acanthiza）、斑啄果鸟科（Pardalotidae）、吸蜜鸟科（Meliphagidae）、短嘴旋木雀科（Climacteridae）等，还有色彩亮丽的琴鸟、天堂鸟及园丁鸟（Ptilonorhynchidae）等。缎蓝亭鸟（Ptilonorhynchus violaceus）则是演化心理学家的爱鸟，它们的求偶仪式极为复杂，雄鸟透过建立放满蓝色及充满闪亮物品的凉亭以吸引伴侣。
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相对于近年才殖民至澳洲的欧亚物种包括有燕子、百灵鸟、鸫科、太阳鸟科、扇尾莺属（cisticola）及一些猛禽，包括大型的楔尾鹰（Aquila audax）。人类也为澳洲带来不少外地物种，一些种如红额金翅雀及欧金翅雀（Carduelis chloris）等与当地鸟类和平共存，但大部分都对当地生态系统造成不少的破坏，当中包括欧洲八哥、家八哥、黑鸫及麻雀等，都对当地生态系构成一定的压力。
澳洲的海岸也吸引了近200种海鸟的到访，包括不少候鸟。澳洲位于候鸟迁徙路线——东亚－澳大利西亚飞行路线的最南端，候鸟从俄罗斯远东地区及阿拉斯加州的冻土原，途经东南亚后抵达澳洲及新西兰。每年便有近2百万头的候鸟经此路径来回往返。除了候鸟外，澳洲也有其本土的海鸟留鸟，包括体型庞大的澳洲鹈鹕（Pelecanus conspicillatus）就广泛分布在澳洲的水域内，最小的企鹅，小蓝企鹅也在澳洲大陆上繁衍生活。
两栖及爬虫类
澳洲共有四科原生青蛙及一种被引入的蟾蜍，蔗蟾蜍（Bufo marinus）。1935年，蔗蟾蜍被认为能控制当地甘蔗田的害虫而被引入，但到目前已演变成生态灾难。它们广泛分布于整个澳洲北部，并以每年50公里的强大速度扩展地盘，与本地食草生物竞争食物，并且会释放出对人畜均有害的毒素。龟蟾科（Myobatrachidae），或称作肌蛙科，是澳洲境内最大的科，共21属120种。此科较有名的物种有科罗澳拟蟾（Pseudophryne corroboree），也称作澳洲夜宴蛙，因其色彩鲜艳及特殊的繁殖方式而为人熟悉，更重要的是它们正站在灭绝边缘，全球剩下不到250头野外个体。雨蛙科的树蛙，分布在雨量丰富的北部及东岸，境内共3属77个种。姬蛙科（Microhylidae），或称作狭口蛙科的2个属18种都只分布在雨林内，澳洲境内最小的青蛙，短掘蛙（Cophixalus exiguus）也是这一科的物种。而在全球占垄断地位的蛙科，澳洲境内却只有一种。与全球其他地区一样，澳洲近年也出现了严峻的两栖动物种群下降问题。虽然到目前为止还没有绝对的答案，但由壶菌（chytrid）引起的壶菌病无可置疑地占一席位。
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澳洲既有咸水及淡水的鳄鱼。常被称作咸水鳄的湾鳄是现存最大的鳄鱼品种，最长体长可达7米及重达1500公斤，其强大的咬合力足以使人致命，过去亦曾发生人命伤亡的事故。生活于澳洲北部的淡水河流及湿地内，也因其皮革及肉的价值而广人所养殖。澳洲淡水鳄也仅生活在澳洲北部，其细小的体型及咬合力使它对人类的威胁极低。
澳洲的海岸也是共六种海龟的旅游圣地：绿蠵龟、玳瑁、丽龟、蠵龟、棱皮龟及平背海龟（Natator depressus），在澳洲水域内都是受保护的物种。共8属29种来自蛇颈龟科（Chelidae）的淡水龟分布在澳洲当地，包括当地最小及极危的澳洲短颈龟；猪鼻龟是唯一非蛇颈龟科的淡水龟，正因其独特的长相而受到疯狂捕捞。澳洲及南极洲是唯一没有陆龟品种的大陆。
澳洲的毒蛇数目也是不寻常的多，当毒蛇在其他大陆属于小数时，澳洲毒蛇的数目却较没有毒的蛇为多。共有七个科约169种的蛇在澳洲生活，包括全球最毒的数种，如内陆太攀蛇、太攀蛇、虎蛇及东部拟眼镜蛇（Pseudonaja textilis）等。这些来自眼镜蛇科的物种在澳洲相当繁盛，全球200种眼睛蛇当中，近一半的86种就是澳洲的特有种。属于海蛇科的有33种在澳洲分布，大部分均身怀剧毒，特别是有全球最毒的蛇类之称的贝尔彻海蛇。瘰鳞蛇科三种中的两种在澳洲的海域内有分布，而全球数量最多最突出的游蛇科，在澳洲则只有11种，而且都不是特有种，并被认为是在较近期的情况下才来临澳洲。蟒科有15种，而以虫为食的盲蛇科则有31种。
There are more lizards in Australia than anywhere else in the world, with representatives of five families. There are 114 species in 18 genera of gecko found throughout the Australian continent. The Pygopodidae is a family of limbless lizards endemic to the Australian region; of the 34 species from eight genera, only one species does not occur in Australia. The Agamidae or Dragon lizards are represented by 66 species in 13 genera, including the Thorny Devil, Bearded Dragon and Frill-necked Lizard. There are 26 species of monitor lizard, family Varanidae, in Australia, where they are commonly known as goannas. The largest Australian monitor is the Perentie, which can reach up to 2 m in length. There are 389 species of skink from 38 genera, comprising about 50% of the total Australian lizard fauna; this group includes the blue-tongued lizards.
Fish
More than 4,400 species of fish inhabit Australia's waterways;[6] of these, 90% are endemic. However, because of the relative scarcity of freshwater waterways, Australia has only 170 species of freshwater fish. Two families of freshwater fish have ancient origins: the arowana or "bony tongues," and the Queensland lungfish. The Queensland lungfish is the most primitive of the lungfish, having evolved before Australia separated from Gondwana. One of the smallest freshwater fish, peculiar to the southwest of Western Australia, is the salamanderfish, which can survive desiccation in the dry season by burrowing into mud. Other families with a potentially Gondwanan origin include the Retropinnidae, Galaxiidae, Aplochitonidae and Percichthyidae. Apart from the ancient freshwater species, 70% of Australia's freshwater fish have affinities with tropical Indo-Pacific marine species that have adapted to freshwater.[7] Nevertheless, fossil evidence indicates that many of these freshwater species are still ancient in origin. These species include freshwater lampreys, herrings, catfish, rainbowfish, and some 50 species of gudgeon, including the Sleepy Cod. Native freshwater game fish include the Barramundi, Murray Cod, and Golden Perch. Two species of endangered freshwater shark are found in the Northern Territory.
Several exotic freshwater fish species, including brown, brook and rainbow trout, Atlantic and Chinook salmon, redfin perch, carp and mosquitofish, have been introduced to Australian waterways.[8] The mosquitofish is a particularly aggressive species known for harassing and nipping the fins of other fish. It has been linked to declines and localised extinctions of several small native fish species. The introduced trout species have had serious negative impacts on a number of upland native fish species including trout cod, Macquarie perch and galaxias species as well as other upland fauna such as the Spotted Tree Frog. The carp is strongly implicated in the dramatic loss in waterweed, decline of small native fish species and permanently elevated levels of turbidity in the Murray-Darling Basin of southwest Australia.
Most of Australia's fish species are marine. Groups of interest include the moray eels and squirrelfish, as well as the pipefish and seahorses, whose males incubate their partner's eggs in a specialised pouch. There are 80 species of grouper in Australian waters, including one of the world's biggest bony fish, the Giant Grouper, which can grow as large as 2.7 m and weigh up to 400 kg. The trevally, a group of 50 species of silver schooling fish, and the snappers are popular species for commercial fishing. The Great Barrier Reef supports a huge variety of small- and medium-sized reef fish, including the damselfish, butterflyfish, angelfish, gobies, cardinalfish, wrassees, triggerfish and surgeonfish. There are several venomous fish, among them several species of stonefish and pufferfish and the red lionfish, all of which have toxins that can kill humans. There are 11 venomous species of stingray, the largest of which is the smooth stingray. The barracudas are one of the reef's largest species. However, large reef fish should not be eaten for fear of ciguatera poisoning.
Sharks inhabit all the coastal waters and estuarine habitats of Australia’s coast. There are 166 species, including 30 species of requiem shark, 32 of catshark, six of wobbegong shark, and 40 of dogfish shark. There are three species from the family Heterodontidae: the Port Jackson shark, the zebra bullhead shark and the crested bullhead shark. In 2004, there were 12 unprovoked shark attacks in Australia, of which two were fatal.[9] Only 3 species of shark pose a significant threat to humans: the bull shark, the tiger shark and the great white shark. Some popular beaches in Queensland and New South Wales are protected by shark netting, a method that has reduced the population of both dangerous and harmless shark species through accidental entanglement. The overfishing of sharks has also significantly reduced shark numbers in Australian waters, and several species are now endangered. A megamouth shark was found on a Perth beach in 1988; very little is known about this species, but this discovery may indicate the presence of the species in Australian coastal waters.
Invertebrates
| Taxonomic group | Estimated number of species described | Estimated total number of species in Australia |
|---|---|---|
| Porifera | 1,416 | ~3,500 |
| Cnidaria | 1,270 | ~1,760 |
| Platyhelminthes | 1,506 | ~10,800 |
| Acanthocephala | 57 | ~160 |
| Nematoda | 2,060 | 30,000 |
| Mollusca | 9,336 | ~12,250 |
| Annelida | 2,125 | ~4,230 |
| Onychophora | 56 | ~56 |
| Crustacea | 6,426 | ~9,500 |
| Arachnida | 5,666 | ~27,960 |
| Insecta | 58,532 | ~83,860 |
| Echinodermata | 1,206 | ~1,400 |
| Other invertebrates | 2,929 | ~7,230 |
| Modified from: Williams et al. 2001.[1] | ||
Of the estimated 200,000 animal species in Australia, about 96% are invertebrates. While the full extent of invertebrate diversity is uncertain, 90% of insects and molluscs are considered endemic.[1] Invertebrates occupy many ecological niches and are important in all ecosystems as decomposers, pollinators, and food sources. The largest group of invertebrates is the insects, comprising 75% of Australia's known species of animals. The most diverse insect orders are the Coleoptera, with 28,200 species of beetles and weevils, the Lepidoptera with 20,816 species including butterflies and moths, and 12,781 species of Hymenoptera, including the ants, bees and wasps. Order Diptera, which includes the flies and mosquitoes, comprises 7,786 species, Order Hemiptera, including bugs, aphids and hoppers, comprises 5,650 species; and there are 2,827 species of order Orthoptera, including grasshoppers, crickets and katydids.[10] Introduced species that pose a significant threat to native species include the European wasp, the red fire ant, the yellow crazy ant and feral honeybees which compete with native bees.
Australia has a wide variety of arachnids, including 135 species of spider that are familiar enough to have common names. There are numerous highly venomous species, including the notorious Sydney funnel-web and redback spiders, whose bites can be deadly. There are thousands of species of mites and ticks from order Acarina. Australia also has eight species of pseudoscorpion and nine scorpion species.
In the Annelida (sub)class Oligochaeta there are many families of aquatic worms, and for native terrestrial worms: the Enchytraeidae (pot worms) and the "true" earthworms in families Acanthodrilidae, Octochaetidae and Megascolecidae. The latter includes the world's largest earthworm, the giant Gippsland earthworm, found only in Gippsland, Victoria. On average they reach 80 cm in length, but specimens up to 3.7 m in length have been found.
The large family Parastacidae includes 124 species of Australian freshwater crayfish. These include the world's smallest crayfish, the swamp crayfish, which does not exceed 30 mm in length, and the world's largest crayfish, the Tasmanian giant freshwater crayfish, measuring up to 76 cm long and weighing 4.5 kg. The crayfish genus Cherax includes the common yabby, in addition to the farmed species marron and Queensland red claw. Species from the genus Engaeus, commonly known as the land crayfish, are also found in Australia. Engaeus species are not entirely aquatic, because they spend most of their lives living in burrows. Australia has seven species of freshwater crab from the genus Austrothelphusa. These crabs live burrowed into the banks of waterways and can plug their burrows, surviving through several years of drought. The extremely primitive freshwater mountain shrimp, found only in Tasmania, are a unique group, resembling species found in the fossil record from 200 MYA.
A huge variety of marine invertebrates are found in Australian waters, with the Great Barrier Reef an important source of this diversity. Families include the Porifera or sea sponges, the Cnidaria (includes the jellyfish, corals and sea anemones, comb jellies), the Echinodermata (includes the sea urchins, sea stars, brittle stars, sea cucumbers, the lamp shells) and the Mollusca (includes snails, slugs, limpets, squid, octopus, cockles, oysters, clams, and chitons). Venomous invertebrates include the box jellyfish, the blue-ringed octopus, and ten species of cone snail, which can cause respiratory failure and death in humans. The crown-of-thorns starfish usually inhabits the Reef at low densities. However, under conditions that are not yet well understood, they can reproduce to reach an unsustainable population density when coral is devoured at a rate faster than it can regenerate. This presents a serious reef management issue. Other problematic marine invertebrates include the native species purple sea-urchin and the white urchin, which have been able to take over marine habitats and form urchin barrens due to the over harvesting of their natural predators which include abalone and rock lobster. Introduced invertebrate pests include the Asian mussel, New Zealand green-lipped mussel, black-striped mussel and the Northern Pacific seastar, all of which displace native shellfish.
There are many unique marine crustaceans in Australian waters. The best-known class, to which all the edible species of crustacean belong, is Malacostraca. The warm waters of northern Australia are home to many species of decapod crustaceans, including crabs, false crabs, hermit crabs, lobsters, shrimps, and prawns. The Peracarids, including the amphipods and isopods, are more diverse in the colder waters of southern Australia. Less-well-known marine groups include the classes Remipedia, Cephalocarida, Branchiopoda, Maxillopoda (which includes the barnacles, copepods and fish lice), and the Ostracoda. Notable species include the Tasmanian giant crab, the second largest crab species in the world, found in deep water, and weighing up to 13 kg, and the Australian spiny lobsters, such as the Western rock lobster, which are distinct from other lobster species as they do not have claws.
Invasive species
Introduction of exotic fauna in Australia by design, accident and natural processes has led to a considerable number of invasive, feral and pest species which have flourished and now impact the environment adversely. Introduced organisms affect the environment in a number of ways. Rabbits render land economically useless. Red Foxes affect local endemic fauna by predation while the cane toad poisons the predators by being eaten. The invasive species include birds (Indian Mynah) and fish (common carp), insects (red imported fire ant) and molluscs (Asian mussel). The problem is compounded by invasive exotic flora as well as introduced diseases, fungi and parasites.
Costly, laborious and time-consuming efforts at control of these species has met with little success and this continues to be a major problem area in the conservation of Australia's biodiversity.
Human impact and conservation
For at least 40,000 years, Australia's fauna played an integral role in the traditional lifestyles of Indigenous Australians, who exploited many species as a source of food and skins. Vertebrates commonly harvested included macropods, opossums, seals, fish and the Short-tailed Shearwater, most commonly known as the Muttonbird. Invertebrates used as food included insects like the Bogong moth and larvae collectively called witchetty grubs and molluscs. The use of fire-stick farming, in which large swathes of bushland were burnt to facilitate hunting, modified both flora and fauna — and are thought to have contributed to the extinction of large herbivores with a specialised diet, such as the flightless birds from the genus Genyornis.[12] The role of hunting and landscape modification by aboriginal people in the extinction of the Australian megafauna is debated.[13]
The impact of Aborigines on native species populations is widely considered to be less significant than that of the European settlers,[13] whose impact on the landscape has been on a relatively large scale. Since European settlement, direct exploitation of native fauna, habitat destruction and the introduction of exotic predators and competitive herbivores has led to the extinction of some 27 mammal, 23 bird and 4 frog species. Much of Australia's fauna is protected by legislation; a notable exception is kangaroos, which are prolific and are regularly culled. The federal Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 was created to meet Australia's obligations as a signatory to the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity. This act protects all native fauna and provides for the identification and protection of threatened species. In each state and territory, there is statutory listing of threatened species. At present, 380 animal species are classified as either endangered or threatened under the EPBC Act, and other species are protected under state and territory legislation.[14] More broadly, a complete cataloguing of all the species within Australia has been undertaken, a key step in the conservation of Australian fauna and biodiversity. In 1973, the federal government established the Australian Biological Resources Study (ABRS), which coordinates research in the taxonomy, identification, classification and distribution of flora and fauna. The ABRS maintains free online databases cataloguing much of the described Australian flora and fauna. Impacts such as the illegal setting of traps in rivers affect animals such as the Australian platypus, along with lack of awareness each year an average of 2-5 australians lose their lives to what is presumed a safe creature. The key is understanding of Australia's diverse wildlife and fauna, what seems safe is often deadly.
Australia is a member of the International Whaling Commission and is strongly opposed to commercial whaling—all Cetacean species are protected in Australian waters. Australia is also a signatory to the CITES agreement and prohibits the export of endangered species. Protected areas have been created in every state and territory to protect and preserve the country's unique ecosystems. These protected areas include national parks and other reserves, as well as 64 wetlands registered under the Ramsar Convention and 16 World Heritage Sites. As of 2002, 10.8% (774,619.51 km²) of the total land area of Australia is within protected areas.[15] Protected marine zones have been created in many areas to preserve marine biodiversity; as of 2002, these areas cover about 7% (646,000 km²) of Australia's marine jurisdiction.[16] The Great Barrier Reef is managed by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority under specific federal and state legislation. Some of Australia's fisheries are already overexploited,[17] and quotas have been set for the sustainable harvest of many marine species.
The State of the Environment Report, 2001, prepared by independent researchers for the federal government, concluded that the condition of the environment and environmental management in Australia had worsened since the previous report in 1996. Of particular relevance to wildlife conservation, the report indicated that many processes—such as salinity, changing hydrological conditions, land clearing, fragmentation of ecosystems, poor management of the coastal environment, and invasive species—pose major problems for protecting Australia's biodiversity.[18]
参见
- Extinct Australian fauna
- Recently extinct Australian animals: from 1788 to present;
- Australian megafauna: from first human colonisation to 1788
注脚
- ^ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Williams, J. et al. 2001. Biodiversity, Australia State of the Environment Report 2001 (Theme Report), CSIRO Publishing on behalf of the Department of the Environment and Heritage, Canberra. ISBN 0-643-06749-3 .pdf[失效链接]
- ^ Archer, M. et al., 1985. First Mesozoic mammal from Australia-an early Cretaceous monotreme. Nature 318:363–366
- ^ Godthelp, H. et al. 1992. Earliest known Australian Tertiary mammal fauna. Nature, 356:514–516
- ^ Townsend, C.R. et al. 2002. The Ecology of Evolution[失效链接], in Essentials of Ecology 2nd edition. Blackwell Publishers ISBN 1-4051-0328-0
- ^ 澳洲博物馆. 2001. Fossil history of birds: fossil history overview
- ^ CSIRO. 2004. Standard Names of Australian Fish
- ^ Williams, W.D. and Allen, G.R. 1987. Origins and adaptations of the fauna of inland waters. In D.W. Walton Ed. Fauna of Australia, Volume 1A. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.
- ^ Wager, R. and Jackson, P. 1993. The Action Plan for Australian Freshwater Fishes, Queensland Department of Primary Industries Fisheries Division ISBN 0-642-16818-0
- ^ International Shark Attack File. 2005. SAF Statistics for the Worldwide Locations with the Highest Shark Attack Activity Since 1990, Florida Museum of Natural History
- ^ CSIRO. Insects and their allies
- ^ Shattuck, S. and Barnett, N. 2001. Australian Ants Online, CSIRO Entomology
- ^ Miller, G. H. 2005. Ecosystem Collapse in Pleistocene Australia and a Human Role in Megafaunal Extinction. Science, 309:287–290 PMID 16002615
- ^ 13.0 13.1 Thomson, J.M. et al. 1987. Human Exploitation of and Introductions to the Australian Fauna. In D.W. Walton Ed. Fauna of Australia, Volume 1A. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.
- ^ Department of the Environment and Heritage. EPBC Act List of Threatened Fauna
- ^ Department of the Environment and Heritage. 2002. Summary of Terrestrial Protected Areas in Australia by Type[失效链接]
- ^ Department of the Environment and Heritage. 2002. About the National Representative System of Marine Protected Areas (NRSMPA)
- ^ Newton, G and Boshier, J, eds. 2001. Coasts and Oceans Theme Report, Australia State of the Environment Report 2001 (Theme Report), CSIRO Publishing on behalf of the Department of the Environment and Heritage, Canberra. ISBN 0-643-06749-3 .pdf[失效链接]
- ^ Australian State of the Environment Committee. 2001. Australia State of the Environment 2001, Independent Report to the Commonwealth Minister for the Environment and Heritage. CSIRO Publishing on behalf of the Department of the Environment and Heritage ISBN 0-643-06745-0 .pdf[失效链接]
参考书目
- Berra, T. M. 1998. A Natural History of Australia. Academic Press ISBN 0-12-093155-9
- McKay, G.M. et al. 1989. Biogeography and Phylogeny of Eutheria. In Fauna of Australia (D. W. Walton and B. J. Richardson, eds.). Mammalia, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 1B:1–1227.
- Strahan, R. ed. 1983. The Australian Museum Complete Book of Australian Mammals. Angus & Robertson ISBN 0-207-14454-0
- Walton, D. W. Ed. 1987. Fauna of Australia, Volume 1A. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra. ISBN 0-644-06055-7
- Wells, A. Ed. 2005. Australian Faunal Directory, Department of Environment and Heritage
外部链接
- Australian Biological Resources Study
- Australian Insect Common names
- Australian Museum, Australia's natural history museum
- Crustacean Gallery- Marine crustacean from southeastern Australia
- Fauna of Australia, full contents of Mammalia and some of Amphibia & Reptilia available in .pdf format
- Fossil Sites of Australia
- University of Melbourne Australian Venom Research Unit, descriptions and images of many venomous species