自身免疫性肝炎
自身免疫性肝炎,前称狼疮性肝炎、浆细胞性肝炎或自身免疫性慢性活动性肝炎,是肝脏的一种慢性自身免疫性疾病,当身体的免疫系统攻击肝细胞时,会导致肝脏发炎。常见的初始症状可能包括疲劳、恶心、肌肉酸痛或体重减轻或急性肝脏炎症的迹象,包括发烧、黄疸和右上腹痛。患有自身免疫性肝炎的人通常没有初始症状,并且可以通过肝功能检查异常和常规血液检查中蛋白质水平升高或腹部手术期间观察到异常的肝脏来检测该疾病。[1]
自身免疫性肝炎 | |
---|---|
显微照片显示淋巴浆细胞界面性肝炎——自身免疫性肝炎的特征性组织形态学发现。肝活检。H&E染色剂。 | |
症状 | 常无症状、乏力、右上腹痛、厌食、恶心、黄疸、关节痛、皮疹 |
并发症 | 慢性肝病、肝硬化 |
起病年龄 | 双峰表现:10-20岁、40-50岁 |
病程 | 终身 |
类型 | 1型,2型,血清阴性 |
病因 | 具有环境触发因素的遗传易感性 |
风险因素 | 女性,其他自身免疫性疾病 |
诊断方法 | 肝酶水平,抗体组。确诊:肝活检 |
鉴别诊断 | 原发性胆汁性胆管炎 原发性硬化性胆管炎 |
治疗 | 泼尼松、硫唑嘌呤 |
预后 | 如果不治疗,存活率<50%,治疗后存活率>90% |
患病率 | 每年每100000人发生1-2次 患病率10-25每100000 |
分类和外部资源 | |
医学专科 | 胃肠学、肝脏病学 |
ICD-11 | DB96.0 |
ICD-9-CM | 571.42 |
DiseasesDB | 1150 |
MedlinePlus | 000245 |
eMedicine | 172356 |
Orphanet | 2137 |
MHC II类受体在肝细胞表面的异常呈现,[2]可能是由于遗传易感性或急性肝脏感染,导致细胞介导的针对人体自身肝脏的免疫反应,导致自身免疫性肝炎。异常的免疫反应会导致肝脏发炎,从而导致进一步的症状和并发症,例如疲劳和肝硬化。[3]该病最常在40至50岁的患者中被诊断出来,患者年龄在40岁至50岁之间。女性比男性更常见。[4]
症状
自身免疫性肝炎可能完全无症状(12-35%的病例),有慢性肝病或急性甚至暴发性肝功能衰竭的迹象。[5][6]
通常表现出一种或多种非特异性的长期症状,例如疲劳、一般健康状况不佳、嗜睡、体重减轻、轻度右上腹痛、不适、厌食、瘙痒、恶心、黄疸或关节痛,尤其影响小关节。极少数情况下,可能会出现皮疹或不明原因的发烧。在女性中,没有月经(闭经)是一个常见的特征。体格检查可能正常,但也可能出现慢性肝病的症状。许多人最初的表现只是实验室异常,转氨酶无法解释的增加,并在评估期间因其他原因被诊断出来。其他人在诊断时已经发展为肝硬化。[4]碱性磷酸酶和胆红素通常是正常的。
自身免疫性肝炎可能与其他自身免疫性疾病重叠,主要是1型糖尿病、溃疡性结肠炎、系统性红斑狼疮、乳糜泻、血管炎和自身免疫性甲状腺炎。[5]
病因
自身免疫性肝炎发展的流行理论被认为是遗传易感性、环境诱发因素(病毒、药物、草药、免疫接种)和天然免疫系统失效导致肝细胞慢性炎症和随后的肝纤维化的相互作用。[7][8][9]
没有具体的证据证明其原因。60%的患者有与慢性肝炎相关的发现,但没有病毒感染的血清学证据。该疾病与抗平滑肌抗体密切相关。[10]
确切的基因和诱发因素仍未确定,但研究表明早发性严重疾病与HLA-DR3血清型有关,而迟发性疾病与HLA-DR4血清型有关。[11]
诊断
排除其他病因(如病毒性、遗传性、代谢性、胆汁淤积性和药物性肝病)后,结合临床、实验室和组织学检查结果可以最好地诊断自身免疫性肝炎。织学检查的要求需要进行肝活检,通常用针通过经皮途径进行,以提供肝组织。
自身抗体
在血液中发现的许多特异性抗体(抗核抗体(ANA)、抗平滑肌抗体(SMA)、抗肝肾微粒体抗体(LKM-1、LKM-2、LKM-3)、抗可溶性肝抗原(SLA)、肝胰抗原(LP)和抗线粒体抗体(AMA))是有用的,如发现免疫球蛋白G水平升高。抗线粒体抗体的存在更提示原发性胆汁性胆管炎。高丙种球蛋白血症也具有诊断价值。[12]
组织学
自身免疫性肝炎可以通过以下非特异性发现在组织学上进行表征:[13][14][15][16]
- 门静脉单核细胞浸润侵入门静脉三联体周围的边界并浸润周围的小叶。
- 门静脉周围病变,也称为界面性肝炎,不影响胆道树(可能包括中心区域坏死)。
- 可以看到胆管异常(胆管炎、胆管损伤、胆管反应),如果观察到肉芽肿,应及时评估原发性胆汁性胆管炎或结节病。
- 浆细胞浸润、肝细胞花环和多核巨细胞。
- 不同程度的纤维化(最轻微的自身免疫性肝炎除外)。连接门静脉和中央区域的桥接纤维化会扭曲肝小叶的结构并导致肝硬化。
诊断评分
国际自身免疫肝炎组织为人群研究中的临床诊断制定了标准化评分系统,但在个体化病例中缺乏价值。[12]用于临床的简化评分系统结合了自身抗体滴度、总IgG水平、肝脏组织学和排除病毒性肝炎的诊断评分。[17]
分类
根据检测到的自身抗体,自身免疫性肝炎可分为三个亚型,但没有明显的临床表现。
- 1型自身免疫性肝炎。阳性抗体包括:[18][19]
- 抗核抗体 (ANA)
- 抗平滑肌抗体 (ASMA) - 65%的人
- 抗肌动蛋白抗体
- 抗线粒体抗体 - 除原发性胆汁性胆管炎重叠综合征外很少见
- 抗可溶性肝抗原/肝胰抗体抗原——20%的人
- 抗双链 DNA - 30%的人
- 非典型核周抗中性粒细胞胞浆抗体(p-ANCA)
- 2型自身免疫性肝炎。阳性抗体包括:[20]
- 肝肾微粒体抗体 (LKM-1)
- 抗肝细胞溶胶抗体 1 (SLC-1)
- 自身抗体阴性的自身免疫性肝炎。[21]
- 缺乏阳性ANA、ASMA、LKM-1等抗体组,但具有自身免疫性肝炎的临床特征,可通过标准治疗解决。
鉴别诊断
其他需要考虑的诊断包括可能导致急性肝炎或可能伴有肝硬化的慢性肝脏炎症:
治疗
药物治疗的选择应基于个体症状的严重程度、肝酶和抗体水平的定量升高、肝活检的结果以及药物治疗副作用的耐受能力。
一般来说,肝酶和抗体水平正常的无症状患者以及肝活检未显示炎症的患者不需要治疗,因为这些患者疾病进展的风险较低。对于有症状且肝活检显示界面性肝炎和坏死证据的个体,建议提供治疗,如果患者年轻且可以耐受药物治疗的副作用。[24][25]
治疗的主要方法是在急性发作期间使用免疫抑制性糖皮质激素,如泼尼松,在高达60-80%的病例中可以实现症状消退,但许多病例最终会复发。[26]对于不能耐受糖皮质激素的中重度疾病患者,低剂量泼尼松单药治疗或与硫唑嘌呤联合治疗是合理的替代方案。布地奈德已被证明在诱导缓解方面比泼尼松更有效,但证据不足,需要更多数据才能例行推荐。[27]对糖皮质激素和硫唑嘌呤无反应的自身免疫性肝炎患者可给予其他免疫抑制剂,如霉酚酸酯、环孢素、他克莫司或甲氨蝶呤。[26][28][29][30]
大约7%到40%的接受治疗的患者会发展为肝硬化。进展为肝硬化的风险最高的人是那些对治疗反应不完全、治疗失败和多次复发的人。一旦发生肝硬化,无论病因如何,自身免疫性肝炎中肝硬化的管理都是标准的。肝移植是暴发性肝功能衰竭患者或尽管接受了多种治疗但仍出现疾病进展的患者的标准治疗方法。[31][32][33]
预后
如果不进行治疗,症状性自身免疫性肝炎患者的十年生存率为50%。经过治疗,十年生存率在90%以上。治疗有好处,但自身免疫性肝炎患者的无移植生存率通常低于普通人群。[34][35][36]肝移植的结果普遍良好,五年生存率超过80%。[4]
流行病学
自身免疫性肝炎可在任何种族或年龄的人中发生,但最常见于女性。[40][41][42]80%的病例是1型亚型,女性受累的频率是男性的4倍;对于2型亚型,女性受累的频率是男性的10倍。[21][43]
历史
自身免疫性肝炎以前称为“狼疮”肝炎,因为人们在诊断时患有相关的自身免疫性疾病,如系统性红斑狼疮,被认为是其原因。最初是在1950年代初描述。[47]
参考文献
- ^ Czaja, Albert J. Autoimmune liver disease. Current Opinion in Gastroenterology. 2004-05, 20 (3) [2022-07-09]. ISSN 0267-1379. PMID 15703647. doi:10.1097/00001574-200405000-00007. (原始内容存档于2022-07-09).
- ^ Franco, A.; Barnaba, V.; Natali, P.; Balsano, C.; Musca, A.; Balsano, F. Expression of class I and class II major histocompatibility complex antigens on human hepatocytes. Hepatology (Baltimore, Md.). 1988-05, 8 (3) [2022-07-10]. ISSN 0270-9139. PMID 2453428. doi:10.1002/hep.1840080302. (原始内容存档于2022-07-10).
- ^ Autoimmune Hepatitis. National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. National Institutes of Health. [2022-07-09]. (原始内容存档于2022-07-09) (美国英语).
- ^ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Manns, Michael P.; Czaja, Albert J.; Gorham, James D.; Krawitt, Edward L.; Mieli-Vergani, Giorgina; Vergani, Diego; Vierling, John M.; American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases. Diagnosis and management of autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology (Baltimore, Md.). 2010-06, 51 (6) [2022-07-09]. ISSN 1527-3350. PMID 20513004. doi:10.1002/hep.23584. (原始内容存档于2022-07-09).
- ^ 5.0 5.1 Than, Nwe Ni; Jeffery, Hannah C.; Oo, Ye H. Autoimmune Hepatitis: Progress from Global Immunosuppression to Personalised Regulatory T Cell Therapy. Canadian Journal of Gastroenterology & Hepatology. 2016, 2016 [2022-07-09]. ISSN 2291-2797. PMC 4904688 . PMID 27446862. doi:10.1155/2016/7181685. (原始内容存档于2022-07-09).
- ^ Zachou, K.; Muratori, P.; Koukoulis, G. K.; Granito, A.; Gatselis, N.; Fabbri, A.; Dalekos, G. N.; Muratori, L. Review article: autoimmune hepatitis -- current management and challenges. Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 2013-10, 38 (8) [2022-07-09]. ISSN 1365-2036. PMID 24010812. doi:10.1111/apt.12470. (原始内容存档于2022-07-09).
- ^ Silva, Juliana; Brito, Beatriz S.; Silva, Isaac Neri de N.; Nóbrega, Viviane G.; da Silva, Maria Carolina S. M.; Gomes, Hemerson Dyego de N.; Fortes, Flora Maria; Pimentel, Andrea M.; Mota, Jaciane; Almeida, Neogélia; Surlo, Valdiana C. Frequency of Hepatobiliary Manifestations and Concomitant Liver Disease in Inflammatory Bowel Disease Patients. BioMed Research International. 2019, 2019 [2022-07-10]. ISSN 2314-6141. PMC 6374878 . PMID 30834274. doi:10.1155/2019/7604939. (原始内容存档于2022-06-20).
- ^ Palle, Sirish K.; Naik, Kushal B.; McCracken, Courtney E.; Kolachala, Vasantha L.; Romero, Rene; Gupta, Nitika A. Racial disparities in presentation and outcomes of paediatric autoimmune hepatitis. Liver International: Official Journal of the International Association for the Study of the Liver. 2019-05, 39 (5) [2022-07-10]. ISSN 1478-3231. PMID 30802337. doi:10.1111/liv.14081. (原始内容存档于2022-01-26).
- ^ Agbim, Uchenna; Asrani, Sumeet K. Non-invasive assessment of liver fibrosis and prognosis: an update on serum and elastography markers. Expert Review of Gastroenterology & Hepatology. 2019-04, 13 (4). ISSN 1747-4132. PMID 30791772. doi:10.1080/17474124.2019.1579641.
- ^ Doycheva, Iliana; Watt, Kymberly D.; Gulamhusein, Aliya F. Autoimmune hepatitis: Current and future therapeutic options. Liver International: Official Journal of the International Association for the Study of the Liver. 2019-06, 39 (6) [2022-07-10]. ISSN 1478-3231. PMID 30716203. doi:10.1111/liv.14062. (原始内容存档于2022-05-24).
- ^ Autoimmune hepatitis - About the Disease. Genetic and Rare Diseases Information Center. National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences. [2022-07-10]. (原始内容存档于2022-02-26) (美国英语).
- ^ 12.0 12.1 Alvarez, F.; Berg, P. A.; Bianchi, F. B.; Bianchi, L.; Burroughs, A. K.; Cancado, E. L.; Chapman, R. W.; Cooksley, W. G.; Czaja, A. J.; Desmet, V. J.; Donaldson, P. T. International Autoimmune Hepatitis Group Report: review of criteria for diagnosis of autoimmune hepatitis. Journal of Hepatology. 1999-11, 31 (5). ISSN 0168-8278. PMID 10580593. doi:10.1016/s0168-8278(99)80297-9.
- ^ Hofer, H.; Oesterreicher, C.; Wrba, F.; Ferenci, P.; Penner, E. Centrilobular necrosis in autoimmune hepatitis: a histological feature associated with acute clinical presentation. Journal of Clinical Pathology. 2006-03, 59 (3) [2022-07-10]. ISSN 0021-9746. PMC 1860344 . PMID 16505273. doi:10.1136/jcp.2005.029348. (原始内容存档于2022-04-26).
- ^ Verdonk, Robert C.; Lozano, Mallaki F.; van den Berg, Aad P.; Gouw, Annette S. H. Bile ductal injury and ductular reaction are frequent phenomena with different significance in autoimmune hepatitis. Liver International: Official Journal of the International Association for the Study of the Liver. 2016-09, 36 (9) [2022-07-10]. ISSN 1478-3231. PMID 26849025. doi:10.1111/liv.13083. (原始内容存档于2022-01-21).
- ^ Abe, Masanori; Onji, Morikazu; Kawai-Ninomiya, Keiko; Michitaka, Kojiro; Matsuura, Bunzo; Hiasa, Yoichi; Horiike, Norio. Clinicopathologic features of the severe form of acute type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology: The Official Clinical Practice Journal of the American Gastroenterological Association. 2007-02, 5 (2). ISSN 1542-7714. PMID 17218164. doi:10.1016/j.cgh.2006.10.011.
- ^ Stravitz, R. Todd; Lefkowitch, Jay H.; Fontana, Robert J.; Gershwin, M. Eric; Leung, Patrick S. C.; Sterling, Richard K.; Manns, Michael P.; Norman, Gary L.; Lee, William M.; Acute Liver Failure Study Group. Autoimmune acute liver failure: proposed clinical and histological criteria. Hepatology (Baltimore, Md.). 2011-02, 53 (2) [2022-07-10]. ISSN 1527-3350. PMC 3080034 . PMID 21274872. doi:10.1002/hep.24080. (原始内容存档于2022-03-19).
- ^ Hennes, Elke M.; Zeniya, Mikio; Czaja, Albert J.; Parés, Albert; Dalekos, George N.; Krawitt, Edward L.; Bittencourt, Paulo L.; Porta, Gilda; Boberg, Kirsten M.; Hofer, Harald; Bianchi, Francesco B. Simplified criteria for the diagnosis of autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology (Baltimore, Md.). 2008-07, 48 (1) [2022-07-10]. ISSN 1527-3350. PMID 18537184. doi:10.1002/hep.22322. (原始内容存档于2022-06-19).
- ^ Czaja, A. J.; Morshed, S. A.; Parveen, S.; Nishioka, M. Antibodies to single-stranded and double-stranded DNA in antinuclear antibody-positive type 1-autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology (Baltimore, Md.). 1997-09, 26 (3) [2022-07-10]. ISSN 0270-9139. PMID 9303484. doi:10.1002/hep.510260306. (原始内容存档于2022-01-21).
- ^ Terjung, B.; Spengler, U.; Sauerbruch, T.; Worman, H. J. "Atypical p-ANCA" in IBD and hepatobiliary disorders react with a 50-kilodalton nuclear envelope protein of neutrophils and myeloid cell lines. Gastroenterology. 2000-08, 119 (2). ISSN 0016-5085. PMID 10930366. doi:10.1053/gast.2000.9366.
- ^ Bridoux-Henno, Laure; Maggiore, Giuseppe; Johanet, Catherine; Fabre, Monique; Vajro, Pietro; Dommergues, Jean-Paul; Reinert, Philippe; Bernard, Olivier. Features and outcome of autoimmune hepatitis type 2 presenting with isolated positivity for anti-liver cytosol antibody. Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology: The Official Clinical Practice Journal of the American Gastroenterological Association. 2004-09, 2 (9). ISSN 1542-3565. PMID 15354284. doi:10.1016/s1542-3565(04)00354-4.
- ^ 21.0 21.1 Heneghan, Michael A.; Yeoman, Andrew D.; Verma, Sumita; Smith, Alastair D.; Longhi, Maria Serena. Autoimmune hepatitis. Lancet (London, England). 2013-10-26, 382 (9902). ISSN 1474-547X. PMID 23768844. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)62163-1.
- ^ 22.0 22.1 Rust, Christian; Beuers, Ulrich. Overlap syndromes among autoimmune liver diseases. World Journal of Gastroenterology. 2008-06-07, 14 (21) [2022-07-10]. ISSN 1007-9327. PMC 2716591 . PMID 18528934. doi:10.3748/wjg.14.3368. (原始内容存档于2022-02-03).
- ^ Czaja, Albert J. Cholestatic phenotypes of autoimmune hepatitis. Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology: The Official Clinical Practice Journal of the American Gastroenterological Association. 2014-09, 12 (9). ISSN 1542-7714. PMID 24013108. doi:10.1016/j.cgh.2013.08.039.
- ^ Mack, Cara L.; Adams, David; Assis, David N.; Kerkar, Nanda; Manns, Michael P.; Mayo, Marlyn J.; Vierling, John M.; Alsawas, Mouaz; Murad, Mohammad H.; Czaja, Albert J. Diagnosis and Management of Autoimmune Hepatitis in Adults and Children: 2019 Practice Guidance and Guidelines From the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases. Hepatology (Baltimore, Md.). 2020-08, 72 (2) [2022-07-10]. ISSN 1527-3350. PMID 31863477. doi:10.1002/hep.31065. (原始内容存档于2022-01-26).
- ^ Gleeson, Dermot; Heneghan, Michael A.; British Society of Gastroenterology. British Society of Gastroenterology (BSG) guidelines for management of autoimmune hepatitis. Gut. 2011-12, 60 (12) [2022-07-10]. ISSN 1468-3288. PMID 21757447. doi:10.1136/gut.2010.235259. (原始内容存档于2022-06-16).
- ^ 26.0 26.1 Krawitt, E. L. Autoimmune hepatitis: classification, heterogeneity, and treatment. The American Journal of Medicine. 1994-01-17, 96 (1A). ISSN 0002-9343. PMID 8109584. doi:10.1016/0002-9343(94)90186-4.
- ^ Manns, Michael P.; Strassburg, Christian P. Therapeutic strategies for autoimmune hepatitis. Digestive Diseases (Basel, Switzerland). 2011, 29 (4) [2022-07-10]. ISSN 1421-9875. PMID 21894012. doi:10.1159/000329805. (原始内容存档于2022-07-10).
- ^ Inductivo-Yu, Ira; Adams, Atoya; Gish, Robert G.; Wakil, Adil; Bzowej, Natalie H.; Frederick, R. Todd; Bonacini, Maurizio. Mycophenolate mofetil in autoimmune hepatitis patients not responsive or intolerant to standard immunosuppressive therapy. Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology: The Official Clinical Practice Journal of the American Gastroenterological Association. 2007-07, 5 (7). ISSN 1542-7714. PMID 17509945. doi:10.1016/j.cgh.2007.02.030.
- ^ Alvarez, F.; Ciocca, M.; Cañero-Velasco, C.; Ramonet, M.; de Davila, M. T.; Cuarterolo, M.; Gonzalez, T.; Jara-Vega, P.; Camarena, C.; Brochu, P.; Drut, R. Short-term cyclosporine induces a remission of autoimmune hepatitis in children. Journal of Hepatology. 1999-02, 30 (2). ISSN 0168-8278. PMID 10068099. doi:10.1016/s0168-8278(99)80065-8.
- ^ Aqel, Bashar A.; Machicao, Victor; Rosser, Barry; Satyanarayana, Raj; Harnois, Denise M.; Dickson, Rolland C. Efficacy of tacrolimus in the treatment of steroid refractory autoimmune hepatitis. Journal of Clinical Gastroenterology. 2004-10, 38 (9) [2022-07-10]. ISSN 0192-0790. PMID 15365410. doi:10.1097/01.mcg.0000139050.67178.be. (原始内容存档于2022-07-10).
- ^ McPhee, Stephen J.; Papadakis, Maxine A. Current medical diagnosis & treatment 2009 48th. New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. 2009: 596. ISBN 978-0-07-159124-9. OCLC 276911363.
- ^ Dyson, Jessica K.; De Martin, Eleonora; Dalekos, George N.; Drenth, Joost P. H.; Herkel, Johannes; Hubscher, Stefan G.; Kelly, Deirdre; Lenzi, Marco; Milkiewicz, Piotr; Oo, Ye H.; Heneghan, Michael A. Review article: unanswered clinical and research questions in autoimmune hepatitis-conclusions of the International Autoimmune Hepatitis Group Research Workshop. Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 2019-03, 49 (5) [2022-07-10]. ISSN 1365-2036. PMID 30671977. doi:10.1111/apt.15111. (原始内容存档于2022-01-26).
- ^ Harrison, Laura; Gleeson, Dermot. Stopping immunosuppressive treatment in autoimmune hepatitis (AIH): Is it justified (and in whom and when)?. Liver International: Official Journal of the International Association for the Study of the Liver. 2019-04, 39 (4) [2022-07-10]. ISSN 1478-3231. PMID 30667576. doi:10.1111/liv.14051. (原始内容存档于2022-01-26).
- ^ Hoeroldt, Barbara; McFarlane, Elaine; Dube, Asha; Basumani, Pandurangan; Karajeh, Mohammed; Campbell, Michael J.; Gleeson, Dermot. Long-term outcomes of patients with autoimmune hepatitis managed at a nontransplant center. Gastroenterology. 2011-06, 140 (7). ISSN 1528-0012. PMID 21396370. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2011.02.065.
- ^ Ngu, Jing Hieng; Gearry, Richard Blair; Frampton, Chris Miles; Stedman, Catherine A. M. Predictors of poor outcome in patients w ith autoimmune hepatitis: a population-based study. Hepatology (Baltimore, Md.). 2013-06, 57 (6) [2022-07-10]. ISSN 1527-3350. PMID 23359353. doi:10.1002/hep.26290. (原始内容存档于2022-07-10).
- ^ Ngu, Jing Hieng; Gearry, Richard Blair; Frampton, Chris Miles; Stedman, Catherine Ann Malcolm. Mortality and the risk of malignancy in autoimmune liver diseases: a population-based study in Canterbury, New Zealand. Hepatology (Baltimore, Md.). 2012-02, 55 (2) [2022-07-10]. ISSN 1527-3350. PMID 21994151. doi:10.1002/hep.24743. (原始内容存档于2022-07-10).
- ^ Lim, K. N.; Casanova, R. L.; Boyer, T. D.; Bruno, C. J. Autoimmune hepatitis in African Americans: presenting features and response to therapy. The American Journal of Gastroenterology. 2001-12, 96 (12) [2022-07-10]. ISSN 0002-9270. PMID 11774954. doi:10.1111/j.1572-0241.2001.05272.x. (原始内容存档于2022-07-10).
- ^ Verma, Sumita; Torbenson, Michael; Thuluvath, Paul J. The impact of ethnicity on the natural history of autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology (Baltimore, Md.). 2007-12, 46 (6) [2022-07-10]. ISSN 1527-3350. PMID 17705297. doi:10.1002/hep.21884. (原始内容存档于2022-07-10).
- ^ Jeyanthi, Dr Keerthana Mani; Katta, Dr Maanya Rajasree; Mishra, Dr Sakshi; Christopher, Dr Joana; Jain, Dr Aakanksh; Jamil, Dr Maria. Evaluation of Autoimmune Diseases with Mental Health Disorders: An Original Research. Annals of the Romanian Society for Cell Biology. 2021-06-12, 25 (6) [2022-07-10]. (原始内容存档于2022-03-30) (英语).
- ^ Boberg, K. M.; Aadland, E.; Jahnsen, J.; Raknerud, N.; Stiris, M.; Bell, H. Incidence and prevalence of primary biliary cirrhosis, primary sclerosing cholangitis, and autoimmune hepatitis in a Norwegian population. Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology. 1998-01, 33 (1) [2022-07-10]. ISSN 0036-5521. PMID 9489916. doi:10.1080/00365529850166284. (原始内容存档于2022-06-21).
- ^ 41.0 41.1 Werner, Mårten; Prytz, Hanne; Ohlsson, Bodil; Almer, Sven; Björnsson, Einar; Bergquist, Annika; Wallerstedt, Sven; Sandberg-Gertzén, Hanna; Hultcrantz, Rolf; Sangfelt, Per; Weiland, Ola. Epidemiology and the initial presentation of autoimmune hepatitis in Sweden: a nationwide study. Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology. 2008, 43 (10) [2022-07-10]. ISSN 1502-7708. PMID 18609163. doi:10.1080/00365520802130183. (原始内容存档于2021-02-02).
- ^ 42.0 42.1 Al-Chalabi, Thawab; Boccato, Sylvia; Portmann, Bernard C.; McFarlane, Ian G.; Heneghan, Michael A. Autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) in the elderly: a systematic retrospective analysis of a large group of consecutive patients with definite AIH followed at a tertiary referral centre. Journal of Hepatology. 2006-10, 45 (4). ISSN 0168-8278. PMID 16899323. doi:10.1016/j.jhep.2006.04.007.
- ^ Czaja, Albert J.; Donaldson, Peter T. Gender effects and synergisms with histocompatibility leukocyte antigens in type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. The American Journal of Gastroenterology. 2002-08, 97 (8) [2022-07-10]. ISSN 0002-9270. PMID 12190176. doi:10.1111/j.1572-0241.2002.05921.x. (原始内容存档于2022-07-10).
- ^ Ngu, Jing H.; Bechly, Kristen; Chapman, Bruce A.; Burt, Michael J.; Barclay, Murray L.; Gearry, Richard B.; Stedman, Catherine A. M. Population-based epidemiology study of autoimmune hepatitis: a disease of older women?. Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology. 2010-10, 25 (10) [2022-07-10]. ISSN 1440-1746. PMID 20880179. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1746.2010.06384.x. (原始内容存档于2022-01-26).
- ^ Primo, J.; Maroto, N.; Martínez, M.; Antón, M. D.; Zaragoza, A.; Giner, R.; Devesa, F.; Merino, C.; del Olmo, J. A. Incidence of adult form of autoimmune hepatitis in Valencia (Spain). Acta Gastro-Enterologica Belgica. 2009-10, 72 (4) [2022-07-10]. ISSN 1784-3227. PMID 20163033. (原始内容存档于2022-01-26).
- ^ 46.0 46.1 Grønbæk, Lisbet; Vilstrup, Hendrik; Jepsen, Peter. Autoimmune hepatitis in Denmark: incidence, prevalence, prognosis, and causes of death. A nationwide registry-based cohort study. Journal of Hepatology. 2014-03, 60 (3). ISSN 1600-0641. PMID 24326217. doi:10.1016/j.jhep.2013.10.020.
- ^ Aizawa, Yoshio; Hokari, Atsushi. Autoimmune hepatitis: current challenges and future prospects. Clinical and Experimental Gastroenterology. 2017, 10 [2022-07-10]. ISSN 1178-7023. PMC 5261603 . PMID 28176894. doi:10.2147/CEG.S101440. (原始内容存档于2022-07-10).