石蛾
石蛾是節肢動物門昆蟲綱毛翅目(Trichoptera)物種的通稱,是一群具有水生幼蟲和陸生成蟲的昆蟲。大約有14,500種被描述的物種,其中大部分可以根據成年口器分為完須亞目(Integripalpia)和環須亞目(Annulipalpia)。 完須亞目的幼蟲構建一個可攜式外殼,以便在它們四處尋找食物時保護自己,而環須亞目的幼蟲構建一個固定式外殼,它們留在裡面等待食物來到它們身邊。第三個小的亞目尖須亞目(Spicipalpia)的分類地位仍不清楚,分子分析表明它可能不是單系的。成蟲是小蛾狀昆蟲,有兩對毛狀膜質翅膀。毛翅目與鱗翅目(飛蛾和蝴蝶)密切相關,它們的翅膀上有鱗片,這兩個目共同形成總目-類脈總目。
毛翅目 化石時期:
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科學分類 | |
界: | 動物界 Animalia |
門: | 節肢動物門 Arthropoda |
綱: | 昆蟲綱 Insecta |
(未分級): | 雙髁類 Dicondylia |
亞綱: | 有翅亞綱 Pterygota |
演化支: | 伴翅類 Metapterygota |
下綱: | 新翅下綱 Neoptera |
演化支: | 真變態類 Eumetabola |
(未分級): | 內生翅類 Endopterygota |
總目: | 蠍蛉總目 Panorpida |
(未分級): | 類脈類 Amphiesmenoptera |
目: | 毛翅目 Trichoptera Kirby,1813 |
水生幼蟲存在於各種各樣的棲息地,如溪流、河流、湖泊、池塘,春季滲漏和臨時水域(春季池)[1]。許多物種的幼蟲使用蟲絲製作保護外殼,這些保護外殼通常用礫石、沙子及樹枝,咬掉的植物碎片或其他碎片加強。幼蟲表現出各種攝食策略,不同的物種是捕食者,葉子粉碎者,藻類食草動物或來自水體和底棲生物的顆粒的收集者。大多數成蟲的壽命短暫,在成蟲期它們不進食。
在飛蠅釣中,人造蠅是模仿成蟲,而幼蟲和蛹則用作誘餌。常見和廣泛的屬例如鉤翅石蛾屬(Helicopsyche)和紋石蛾屬(Hydropsyche)在這項運動中很重要。石蛾可用作生物指標,因為它們對水污染敏感並且足夠大以便在現場進行評估水質。在藝術方面,法國藝術家休伯特·杜普拉特 (Hubert Duprat) 的創作作品是為石蠶幼蟲提供小顆粒金和寶石,讓它們製作成裝飾外殼。
進化和系統發育
化石歷史
在可追溯到三疊紀的岩石中發現了石蛾化石[2]。最大數量的化石遺骸是幼蟲的外殼,它們由耐用的材料製成,保存良好。身體的化石非常罕見,最古老的是早期和中三疊世,大約2.3億年前,翅膀是另一種化石來源[3]。在三疊紀期間,這個群體演變為具有完全水生幼蟲的群體似乎已經發生了一段時間[4]。在巴西海洋沉積物中發現類似於石蛾幼蟲外殼的化石可能會將這個目的起源推到二疊紀早期[3]。
演化
幾乎所有的成蟲都是陸生的,但它們的幼蟲和蛹都是水生的。他們與幾個遠親相關的群體共享這一特徵,即蜻蜓、蜉蝣目、石蠅、榿木和草蛉[4]。所有這些群體的祖先都是陸地的,具有開放的氣管系統,當它們進入水中以避免被捕食時,會為它們的水生幼蟲趨同演化出不同類型的鰓[4]。
目前世界上毛翅目已有45個科14,500種物種被發表[5],但還有更多的種類仍有待被描述。大多數可以以成蟲口器的基礎上分為完須亞目或環須亞目。成蟲的特徵取決於兩性的觸肢,翼靜脈和生殖器,後兩個特徵在不同的超科間的變異即很大,以至於亞目之間的差異並不明確[6]。環須亞目的幼體是蛓型若蟲(自由生活,良好的硬化若蟲,長腿掠食者與背腹扁平的身體和突出的口器)。完須亞目的幼體是多足若蟲(硬化不良的碎屑動物,除了胸腿外還有腹部前肢,永久性地生活在貼身的外殼中)[6] 。第三個亞目尖須亞目的親緣關係尚不清楚; 幼蟲是自由生活的,沒有任何外殼,而是用蟲絲製造網狀陷阱。
系統發生樹
此進化樹基於2008年一項DNA和蛋白質序列分析的研究繪製,顯示毛翅目與鱗翅目的親緣關係密切,兩者互為姐妹群,而雙翅目和長翅目則是與毛翅目親緣關係第二接近的類群[7][8][9][10]。
內翅總目(Endopterygota)的一部分
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毛翅目內部類群的親緣關係演化樹,此圖基於2002年一項分析rDNA序列,核延伸因子基因的序列,以及粒線體細胞色素氧化酶的序列的分子系統發生學研究繪製。 完須亞目和環須亞目均為圖中的演化支,但尖須亞目內類群的演化關係仍不清楚,有可能不是單系群[11]。
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下級分類
本科包括以下屬:
- Anomalopsychidae
- Antipodoeciidae
- Apataniidae
- Atriplectididae
- Baissoferidae
- Barbarochthonidae
- Beraeidae
- Brachycentridae
- Burmapsychidae
- Calamoceratidae
- Calocidae
- Chathamiidae
- Cladochoristidae
- Coenoesucidae
- Conoesucidae
- Cretapsychidae
- Dipseudopsidae
- Dysoneuridae
- Ecnomidae
- Electralbertidae
- Glossosmatidae
- Glossosomatidae
- Agapetus Curtis, 1834
- Anagapetus Ross, 1938
- Campsiophora Flint, 1964
- Canoptila Mosely, 1939
- Cariboptila Flint, 1964
- Catagapetus McLachlan, 1884
- Ceraclea Leach, 1815
- Cubanoptila Sykora, 1973
- Culoptila Mosely, 1954
- Dajella Sukatsheva, 1990
- Dauroglos Melnitsky & Ivanov, 2020
- Electragapetus Ulmer, 1912
- Glossosoma Curtis, 1834
- Itauara Mueller, 1888
- Klapalekia Botosaneanu, 1955
- Lipoglossa Martynov, 1930
- Mastigoptila Flint, 1967
- Matrioptila Ross, 1956
- Merionoptila Schmid, 1959
- Mexitrichia Mosely, 1937
- Mortoniella Ulmer, 1906
- Mystroglossa Kobayashi, 1982
- Mystrophora Klapálek, 1892
- Mystrophorella Kloet & Hincks, 1944
- Nepaloptila Kimmins, 1964
- Padunia Martynov, 1910
- Poeciloptila Schmid, 1991
- Protoptila Banks, 1904
- Scotiotrichia Mosely, 1934
- Siberocretopetus Melnitsky & Ivanov, 2020
- Synagapetus McLachlan, 1879
- Temburongpsyche Malicky, 1995
- Tolhuaca Schmid, 1964
- 瘤石蛾科 Goeridae
- Helicophidae
- Alloecella Banks, 1939
- Alloecentrellodes Flint, 1979
- Austrocentrus Schmid, 1964
- Eosericostoma Schmid, 1955
- Helicopha Mosely, 1953
- Heloccabus Neboiss, 2002
- Microthremma Schmid, 1955
- Pseudosericostoma Schmid, 1957
- Zelolessica McFarlane, 1956
- 鉤翅石蛾科 Helicopsychidae
- Hydrobiosidae
- 紋石蛾科 Hydropsychidae
- Hydropsychoidea
- Hydroptilidae
- Hydrosalpingidae
- Kalophryganidae
- Kambaitipsychidae
- Kokiriidae
- Lepidochlamidae
- Lepidostomatidae
- Leptoceridae
- Limnephilidae
- Limnocentropodidae
- Limnophilidae
- Molannidae
- Necrotauliidae
- Ningxiapsychidae
- Odontoceridae
- Oeconesidae
- Ogmomyiidae
- Petrothrincidae
- Philopotamidae
- Philorheithridae
- Phryganeidae
- Phryganopsychidae
- Pisuliidae
- Plectrotarsidae
- Polycentropidae
- Polycentropodidae
- Prorhyacophilidae
- Protobaikalopsychidae
- Pseudoneureclipsidae
- Psychomyidae
- Psychomyiidae
- Ptilocolepidae
- 流石蛾科 Rhyacophilidae
- Rhyacophiloidea
- Rossianidae
- Sericostomatidae
- Stenopsychidae
- Tasimiidae
- Taymyrelectronidae
- Terminoptysmatidae
- Thremmatidae
- Uenoidae
- Vitimotauliidae
- Xiphocentronidae
- Yantarocentridae
- 科的地位未定的屬:
- Abacarioides Marlier, 1961
- Achirocentra Marlier, 1961
- Achorema Mosely, 1941
- Acropsilopteryx Schmid, 1952
- Acroptera Hwang, 1957
- Acrunoecia Ulmer, 1907
- Acrunoeciella Martynov, 1909
- Adelomyia Ulmer, 1912
- Adoptysma Novokshonov, 1994
- Aerogaster Kolenati, 1858
- Aetesis Wallengren, 1891
- Afragapetus Mosely, 1939
- Afritrichia Mosely, 1939
- Allagapetus Martynov, 1936
- Allegophylax Banks, 1916
- Allotriogamatis Wallengren, 1891
- Amathus Stephens, 1836
- Amblypteryx Stephens, 1836
- Amechanites Haupt, 1956
- Amphipsychella Martynov, 1935
- Amukia Martynov, 1935
- Anabolioides Martynov, 1909
- Anseriglossa Ross, 1956
- Antarctopsyche Ulmer, 1907
- Aopsyche Ross, 1938
- Apatelia Wallengren, 1886
- Apatelina Martynov, 1936
- Apatidea McLachlan, 1874
- Apolopsyche Banks, 1916
- Aratrichia Mosely, 1948
- Archapatania Martynov, 1935
- Archotaulius Handlirsch, 1906
- Arctopsychodes Ulmer, 1915
- Argyrobothrus Barnard, 1934
- Aristopsyche Tillyard, 1919
- Asotocerus McLachlan, 1866
- Aspatherium Kolenati, 1848
- Astenophylodes Mosely, 1936
- Astoplectron Banks, 1914
- Astratodes Martynov, 1928
- Astratus McLachlan, 1874
- Athripsodina Kimmins, 1963
- Atomyiella Tsuda, 1936
- Atomyiodes Ulmer, 1911
- Atopsaura Ross, 1953
- Atopsychodes Mosely, 1949
- Australomyia Schmid, 1950
- Austrecnomina Korboot, 1964
- Axiomaldia Melnitsky & Ivanov, 2020
- Ayabeopsyche Tsuda, 1942
- Badallus Navás, 1918
- Baicalodes Martynov, 1924
- Baliotrichia Ulmer, 1951
- Bathytinodes Iwata, 1927
- Bellendrona
- Brachycentriella Iwata, 1927
- Brethesella Navás, 1920
- Caenotaulius Thomson, 1891
- Calamodontus Botosaneanu & Wichard, 1983
- Caldra Navás, 1924
- Carpathopsyche Botosaneanu, 1952
- Catadice McLachlan, 1880
- Cathayamodus Gao et al., 2016
- Celanopsyche Fischer, 1970
- Ceylanopsyche Fischer, 1970
- Chaetopterygella Martynov, 1916
- Chaetotaulius Kolenati, 1848
- Cheumatopsychodes Marlier, 1961
- Chimarrhafra Lestage, 1936
- Chimarrhodes Müller, 1887
- Chloropsyche McLachlan, 1880
- Colpomera McLachlan, 1862
- Conchindusia Vyalov & Sakacheva, 1976
- Conia McFarlane, 1956
- Conuxia McFarlane, 1966
- Coprindusia Ivanov, 2006
- Cordillopsyche Banks, 1913
- Crenogenes Imhoff, 1838
- Cretahelicopsyche Wichard et al., 2018
- Cretolype Ivanov, 2006
- Crunobiella Martynov, 1928
- Crunobiodes Martynov, 1928
- Crunoeciella Ulmer, 1905
- Cunia Navás, 1917
- Cyllene Chambers, 1873
- Desmotaulius Kolenati, 1848
- Dicentropus Ulmer, 1905
- Dilophia Kolenati, 1859
- Dinogoerodes Martynov, 1928
- Diploglossa Martynov, 1934
- Dipseudopsodes Lestage, 1936
- Doliocypta Banks, 1939
- Dolochorema Banks, 1913
- Dolophiliella Banks, 1930
- Dophnea Wallengren, 1891
- Dromophila Heyden, 1850
- Ecnomiella Mosely, 1935
- Ecnomodellina Ulmer, 1962
- Ecnomodes Ulmer, 1911
- Ecnopsyche Banks, 1914
- Eoagapetus Martynov, 1934
- Eocosraoecus Wiggins & Richardson, 1989
- Eomystra Martynov, 1934
- Eothremma Martynov, 1933
- Episetodes Martynov, 1936
- Eremopsyche Banks, 1901
- Eruodes Martynov, 1913
- Esperona Navás, 1915
- Ethiopsyche Marlier, 1962
- Eudinarthrum Martynov, 1913
- Eustenace Banks, 1916
- Ferghanopsyche Martuinov, 1937
- Folindusia Berry, 1927
- Friga Milne, 1934
- Galta Navás, 1916
- Gatlinia Ross, 1948
- Glyphocentron Schmid, 1982
- Goerinella Ulmer, 1915
- Gynapatania Forsslund, 1942
- Halesinus Ulmer, 1907
- Haplosetina Navás, 1931
- Heliconis Dziedzielewicz & Klapálek, 1908
- Helictomerus McLachlan, 1865
- Hemipterna McLachlan, 1874
- Himalophanes Banks, 1940
- Hoffmanseggia Kolenati, 1848
- Homoeoplectron Ulmer, 1905
- Hormocerus Kolenati, 1859
- Hyalopsychodes Betten, 1909
- Hydrocheumatopsyche Marlier, 1962
- Hydropneuma Enderlein, 1929
- Hydrorchestria Kolenati, 1848
- Hylepsyche Banks, 1916
- Hyperrhyacophila Döhler, 1950
- Hypnotranus Wallengren, 1891
- Hypochiona Wallengren, 1891
- Hypodinarthrum Martynov, 1913
- Hyporhyacophila Döhler, 1950
- Ignasala Navás, 1932
- Indodinarthrum Martynov, 1936
- Isocentropus Navás, 1917
- Javanotrichia Ulmer, 1951
- Jyrvia Milne, 1934
- Karaungira Novokshonov & Sukacheva, 1994
- Karomana Schmid, 1993
- Khandalina Navás, 1934
- Kitagamia Iwata, 1927
- Kizakia Iwata, 1927
- Kubuneopsych Tsuda, 1942
- Lagenopsyche Müller, 1879
- Lamonganotrichia Ulmer, 1951
- Lanagapetus Mosely, 1938
- Lasiostoma Rambur, 1842
- Leptocellodes Ulmer, 1911
- Leptocerodes Lestage, 1936
- Lithacodes Martynov, 1909
- Litostola Wallengren, 1891
- Macrotaulius Schmid, 1952
- Madeophylax Huryn & Wallace, 1984
- Madioxyethira Schmid, 1960
- Marsupus Hagen, 1855
- Mesocolepus Melnitsky & Ivanov, 2020
- Mesopaduniella Lestage, 1926
- Mesotaulius Handlirsch, 1906
- Metadinarthrum Martynov, 1913
- Metapsilopteryx Botosaneanu, 1957
- Metarhyacophila Döhler, 1950
- Molanneria Martynov, 1910
- Molassoterrindusia Jäckel & Gregor, 2014
- Monopseudopsis Walker, 1852
- Mormonia Curtis, 1834
- Mpuga Schmid, 1993
- Muangpaipsyche Malicky & Silalom, 2012
- Muroglossa Ross, 1956
- Musarna Walker, 1860
- Myanpsyche Wichard, 2021
- Myspoleo Barnard, 1934
- Naganagapetus Tsuda, 1942
- Nais Brauer, 1857
- Nais Rambur, 1842
- Nanoagraylea Botosaneanu, 1995
- Necropsis Hong, 1983
- 線長角蛾屬 Nematopogon Kolenati, 1858
- Neoleptonema Ulmer, 1907
- Neophryganea Martynov, 1924
- Nesopsyche McLachlan, 1866
- Ngoya Schmid, 1993
- Noleca Mosely, 1939
- Nolga Navás, 1930
- Nolganema Navás, 1934
- Notiomyia Banks, 1905
- Nyctegersia Wallengren, 1891
- Oeceotrichia Ulmer, 1951
- Oecetodella Ulmer, 1930
- Oecetodes Ulmer, 1907
- Oeconessus McLachlan, 1862
- Oestropsis Brauer, 1868
- Oligoplectrodes Martynov, 1909
- Olostomis Percheron, 1836
- Oncocerus Kolenati, 1859
- Oopterygia Martynov, 1930
- Orthochlamys Montrouzier, 1864
- Orthotrichiella Ulmer, 1951
- Ostracindusia Vyalov, 1973
- Oxydroptila Martynov, 1935
- Oxytrichia Mosely, 1939
- Paleodicella Sukatsheva, 2014
- Paracnomina Kimmins, 1959
- Paradinarthrum Martynov, 1913
- Paraethaloptera Martynov, 1935
- Paragapetus Banks, 1914
- Paralenarchus Schmid, 1952
- Parapatania Forsslund, 1942
- Parapotamorites Martynov, 1935
- Pararhyacophila Döhler, 1950
- Pasirotrichia Ulmer, 1951
- Pelindusia Vyalov & Sakacheva, 1976
- Pellopsyche Banks, 1903
- Petrotrichia Ulmer, 1910
- Pettostomis Kolenati, 1859
- Phanostoma Brauer, 1875
- Philopotamopsis Iwata, 1927
- Phryganeolitha Germar, 1813
- Phryganomyia Banks, 1907
- Piscindusia Jarzembowski, 1995
- Placocentropus Schmid, 1955
- Plecophlebus Cockerell, 1917
- Plesiopsyche Navás, 1931
- Plethotrichia Ulmer, 1951
- Pleurograpta Wallengren, 1891
- Podomacronema Banks, 1920
- Polytrichia Sibley, 1926
- Potamoryza Barnard, 1934
- Potomaria Stephens, 1836
- Praecosmoecus Martynov, 1914
- Primerenca Navás, 1915
- Prolenarchus Schmid, 1952
- Propaduniella Lestage, 1926
- Prosoponia Stephens, 1836
- Prosrhyacophila Döhler, 1950
- Protarra Ross, 1956
- Protoclipsis Wichard, Müller & Fischer, 2022
- Protoglossa Ross, 1956
- Pseudagapetus McLachlan, 1879
- Pseudohalesus Martynov, 1928
- Pseudoleptocerus Ulmer, 1907
- Pseudonema McLachlan, 1862
- Pseudopotamorites Forsslund, 1936
- Pseudosetodes Ulmer, 1905
- Psiadosporus Wallengren, 1891
- Psiloneura Banks, 1914
- Psychomyiellina Lestage, 1926
- Psychomyiodes Ulmer, 1922
- Ptyopteryx Kolenati, 1848
- Qinquania Hong, 1982
- Quarelia Martynov, 1913
- Quaria Milne, 1934
- Quissa Milne, 1936
- Rhamphocentron Schmid, 1982
- Rheophylax Sibley, 1926
- Rhyacophylax Müller, 1879
- Rhynchorheithrus Schmid, 1964
- Ripaeglossa Ross, 1956
- Sanctipaulus Pinto, 1956
- Saranganotrichia Ulmer, 1951
- Secrindusia Vialov & Sukacheva, 1976
- Seselpsyche Malicky, 1993
- Setodellina Lestage, 1919
- Setodina Banks, 1907
- Sinion Barnard, 1934
- Sinoglossa Ross, 1956
- Sogdopsyche Martuinov, 1937
- Sortosella Sukatcheva, 2004
- Spathidopteryx Kolenati, 1848
- Sperotrichia Marlier, 1978
- Sphagocentron Schmid, 1982
- Spilotaulius Thomson, 1891
- Stasiasmus McLachlan, 1880
- Stathmophorus Kolenati, 1848
- Stenophyliella Mosely, 1936
- Stenophylina Mosely, 1936
- Sumatronotrichia Ulmer, 1951
- Synagotrichia Ulmer, 1951
- Synaptopsyche Ulmer, 1951
- Tagapetus Ross, 1951
- Terrindusia Vialov, 1973
- Tetracentron Brauer, 1865
- Thylakion Barnard, 1934
- Tinodes Stephens, 1829
- Tobikera Matsumura, 1931
- Trawaspsyche Malicky, 2004
- Triassopsyche Tillyard, 1917
- Trichophila Kimmins, 1952
- Trichophylax Mosely, 1936
- Trichopterella Cockerell, 1924
- Trichostoma Pictet, 1834
- Tuanwangica Zhang, 1985
- Turanopsyche Martuinov, 1937
- Uenotrichia Tsuda, 1942
- Ulmeria Navás, 1918
- Ventrarma Navás, 1924
- Veteropsyche Botosaneanu, Johnson & Dillon, 1998
- Vigarrha Navás, 1922
- Xinjiangia Hong, 1983
- Xirocentron Schmid, 1982
- Xylophthoron Hagen, 1864
- Ymymia Milne, 1934
- Yrula Milne, 1934
- Zelobiosella Mosely, 1953
- Zelomyia McFarlane, 1956
分布
石蛾遍布全球,在更溫暖的地區更加多樣化。它們與淡水水體有關,幼蟲存在於湖泊,池塘,河流,溪流和其他水體中[12]。陸地石蛾(Enoicyla pusilla)則生活在森林地面的潮濕的底部。在英國,它們生活在位於伍斯特郡及其周圍的橡樹林中。
生態
石蛾幼蟲(石蠶)在淡水棲息地的所有飼養行會都可以被找到。大多數早期幼蟲和一些晚期幼蟲都是收集者-聚集者,從底棲生物中拾取有機物碎片。其他物種是收集者-過濾者,使用絲網或腿上的毛髮從水中篩分有機顆粒。有些物種是刮食者,以陽光下的水下物體上生長的藻類和其他附生生物為食。其他的是碎片食草動物,從活植物材料中咀嚼碎片,而其他物種則是吃碎木屑,啃爛木頭或咀嚼已被細菌和真菌預處理過的枯葉; 後一組的大部分營養素來自吃細菌和真菌。掠食性物種要麼主動捕獵它們的獵物,通常是其他昆蟲,小甲殼類動物和蠕蟲,要麼等待粗心的無脊椎動物過於接近。少數物種在死亡動物或魚類上機會性地進食,一些長角石蛾科(Leptoceridae)的幼蟲以淡水海綿為食[13]。
像蜉蝣、石蠅和蜻蜓,但在較小程度上,石蛾是良好水質的指標; 它們死於有被污染水的溪流[14]。 它們是食物網的重要組成部分,幼蟲和成蟲都被許多魚吃掉。新孵出的成蟲特別容易受到影響,因為它從蛹中出來後會掙扎到水面,並且它會晾乾它的翅膀。魚類發現這些新成蟲很容易吃掉,而且在一年中的正確時間可以模仿它們當作垂釣者的釣魚魚鉺[15]。
成蟲階段的石蛾可能只存活幾個星期; 許多物種成蟲不會進食並在繁殖後很快死亡,但已知一些物種以花蜜為食[16]。 有翅昆蟲是夜間活動的,為夜間飛行的鳥類、蝙蝠、小型哺乳動物、兩棲動物和節肢動物提供食物。幼蟲階段持續時間更長,通常持續一年或更長時間,並對環境產生更大的影響[17] 。
水下建築師
外殼
石蛾以其幼蟲創造的可攜式外殼而聞名。大約有三十個科,完須亞目成員,採取這種策略。這些幼蟲吃碎屑,大部分腐爛的植物材料,它們進食的腐爛葉子碎片傾向於積聚在空洞中,在緩慢移動的溪流中,石塊,和樹根後面。這些外殼在幼蟲前往這些資源之間時為其提供保護[18]。
該外殼是由絲綢製成的管狀結構,由幼蟲口附近的唾液腺分泌,並在卵孵化後不久開始。根據幼蟲的基因構成,可以在其結構,材料的性質和設計中加入各種增強物; 這意味著石蛾幼蟲可以從它們的外殼被辨認到科的水平,甚至屬的水平。使用的材料包括沙粒,較大的岩石碎片,樹皮,枝條,葉子,種子和軟體動物外殼。它們整齊地排列並粘在絲質管的外表面上。隨著幼蟲的生長,在前面添加了更多的材料,幼蟲可以在管中轉動並修剪後端,使其不會沿著基底(substrate)拖動[18]。
石蛾外殼在兩端開放,幼蟲通過後端抽吸含氧水,流過鰓,並將其從更寬的前端泵出。幼蟲在管內移動,這有助於保持水流; 水的氧含量越低,幼蟲需要的活性越高。這種機制使得石蛾幼蟲能夠生活在氧含量過低的水域中,在那裡的水中含氧量都難以支持石蠅和蜉蝣幼蟲[16]。
發育和形態
石蛾幼蟲是水生的,在腹部下面有六對氣管鰓。儘管有些物種的雌性進入水中選擇地點,但是在出現的樹枝或植被或水面上將卵放在水面上。雖然大多數物種產卵,但Triplectides屬中的一些是卵胎生的。有些物種在陸地上產卵,雖然大多數與淡水有關,但一些像Symphitoneuria被發現沿海鹹水中。 Philanisus plebeius雌性產卵進入潮間海星的體腔[19]。 幼蟲長且大致呈圓柱狀,與鱗翅目非常相似但缺乏前肢[19]。在攜帶外殼的物種中,頭部受到重度的硬化,而腹部則是柔軟的; 觸角很短,口器適合咬。通常十個腹部區段中的每一個都具有一對具有單個跗關節的腿。在帶外殼的物種中,第一段帶有三個乳突,一個在上面,兩個在兩側,它們將幼蟲錨在管子的中心。
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在遠離水源的葉子上的卵塊
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蛹帶有槳狀的游泳足
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蛹
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從水生蛹羽化而出的Parachiona picicornis成蟲
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Daternomina屬物種的雄性成蟲
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|journal=
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