葉尼塞語系
葉尼塞語系(Yeniseic),又稱葉尼塞-奧斯佳克語系(Yenisei-Ostyak[notes 1])是分布在西伯利亞中部葉尼塞河流域的一個語系。作為擬議的德內–葉尼塞語系的一部分,葉尼塞語系被認為是「首次證明新舊大陸語系存在符合傳統比較-歷史語言學標準的語系關係」的一部分。[2]目前僅存的葉尼塞語是凱特語。
葉尼塞語系 | |
---|---|
使用族群 | 葉尼塞民族 |
地理分佈 | 西伯利亞中葉尼塞河 歷史上曾占據西伯利亞大部及蒙古 |
譜系學分類 | 德內-葉尼塞語系?
|
原始語言 | 原始葉尼塞語 |
分支 |
北 (凱特-尤格語族)
南 (阿林-科特語族) †
|
– | |
Glottolog | yeni1252[1] |
葉尼塞語系各語言的分布(1600) |
有人認為水名學和遺傳學數據說明,葉尼塞語在古代曾在更大的區域內使用,包括中國北部和蒙古的部分地區。[3]還有人認為,17世紀來記錄的葉尼塞語分布代表了相對較近的北遷,葉尼塞語的原鄉位於貝加爾湖以南。[4]
葉尼塞人與匈奴可能有聯繫,匈奴貴族可能說一種類似於旁普科爾語的南葉尼塞語支語言。[5]根據語言學和民族地理學資料,建立了後趙的羯人可能說一種類似於旁普科爾語的語言。[6]
匈奴語為突厥語系和蒙古語系貢獻了大量借詞,有可能最終來自葉尼塞語,如「汗」「可汗」「答剌罕」「騰格里」等等。[7]這一結論主要分析自漢語文獻中記錄的匈奴語。
介紹
據推測,匈奴語和匈人語可能屬於南葉尼塞語支。尤格語、旁普科爾語、阿林語和阿桑語早在18世紀消亡,科特語在19世紀末消亡,雅斯京語、雅林語、拜科特語則更早消亡。只能從17世紀的毛皮稅記錄中確定其屬於葉尼塞語系,但除了部分專名外,其語言已蕩然無存。芬蘭語言學家Castrén發表了詳細的語法和詞典。尤格語在1960年代絕種,俄國學者Werner對這種語言進行了深入的研究,發表了詞典、語法和傳統故事。如今只有凱特語還在使用中,約有1000個左右的老人懂這種語言。
分布
凱特語是現存唯一的葉尼塞語,也是已知的最北端的葉尼塞語。據史料記載,在俄羅斯征服西伯利亞的同時,凱特語沿葉尼塞河向北擴展。[9]如今,克特語主要在西伯利亞最北部的克拉斯諾亞爾斯克邊疆區圖魯漢斯克區的Kellog和Sulomay等村莊使用。葉尼塞斯克到Vorogovo、Yartsevo、克季河上游一帶,曾分布著最近才消亡的尤格語。
可以構擬阿林語、旁普科爾語、科特語和阿桑語在現代早期的分布。阿林語分布在克拉斯諾亞爾斯克以北,與其關係密切的旁普科爾語則分布在其以北以西的克季河上游。科特語和阿桑語是另一對關係密切的語言,分布在克拉斯諾亞爾斯克以南、坎河以東的地區。[10]從地名可以看出,葉尼塞人可能居住在布里亞特共和國、外貝加爾邊疆區和蒙古國北部。例如,外貝加爾邊疆區可見地名ši,可能與原始葉尼塞語sēs「河」有關,可能來自一種未被記載的葉尼塞語。看上去像葉尼塞語的地名甚至延伸到黑龍江。[4]
Václav Blažek根據水名數據認為,葉尼塞語曾分布在更遠的西部,例如更西部的河名šet可能也來自原始葉尼塞語sēs「河」。[11]
起源與歷史
根據一份2016年的研究,葉尼塞語人群及其語言可能源於阿爾泰山脈或貝加爾湖附近,葉尼塞人與古愛斯基摩人有關。[12]葉尼塞人可能還是從白令陸橋回遷的代表,德內-葉尼塞語門則是白令陸橋外人口輻射的結果。[13]
愛德華·瓦伊達在西伯利亞觀察到,環北極地區的葉尼塞語水名系統明顯重疊在早期的烏戈爾語、薩摩耶德語、突厥語和通古斯語上。因此,有人提出葉尼塞語原鄉當位於貝加爾湖、蒙古北部和上葉尼塞盆地之間,瓦伊達稱其為被葉尼塞語先民「遺棄」的地區。[4]另一方面,Václav Blažek (2019)則根據水名證據認為,葉尼塞語最初分布在天山山脈和帕米爾高原北坡,後來沿額爾齊斯河順流北上。[11]
因此,西伯利亞中北部的現代葉尼塞人並非原住民,而是最近才北遷的。俄羅斯探險家在西伯利亞注意到了這一點:據記載,從17世紀起,凱特人沿葉尼塞河向北擴展,從葉洛圭河到庫列伊卡河。[9]根據這些記錄,現代凱特語似乎代表了葉尼塞遷徙的最北端。 北遷可能與匈奴的衰落有關。從漢語文獻來看,葉尼塞語可能是匈奴中重要的少數民族,[14]但由於資料缺乏,這些觀點很難得到證實。[15][16]
亞歷山大·沃文認為,至少部分匈奴人(可能是貴族、統治階級)說葉尼塞語。[5]他認為與突厥語相比,匈奴語同葉尼塞語的相似程度更高;他還讚揚了Stefan Georg的工作,即論證「騰格里」(突厥語和蒙古語中的「天」>「神」)如何源於原始葉尼塞語tɨŋVr。[7]
還有人認為,葉尼塞語匈奴精英在西遷中經歷了向烏古爾語支的語言替換,最終成為匈人。不過,也有人認為匈奴語的核心的葉尼塞語。[17]
愛德華·瓦伊達 (et al. 2013)提出,匈人的統治精英說的是一種葉尼塞語,並影響了當地的其他語言。[3]
建立後趙的羯族的語言似乎與葉尼塞語一致。[5]後來的研究表明,與凱特語等相比,羯語更接近旁普科爾語。[6]瓦伊達用地理數據證實,蒙古北部的葉尼塞語水名完全是旁普科爾語,從而證明了葉尼塞語和羯語在語言和地理上的接近性。
在俄羅斯征服西伯利亞開始後,南葉尼塞語支的衰落可能由於阿林語和旁普科爾語向哈卡斯語及楚利姆語發生了轉移,科特語和阿桑語也向哈卡斯語發生了轉移。[10]
語系特徵
葉尼塞語同西伯利亞語支南部語群、薩摩耶德語支與鄂溫克語共享很多區域特徵,包括遠距離鼻音和諧、古塞擦音變為塞音、後置介詞或附著語素作補語從句等。[18]葉尼塞語的名詞性附著語素與地理上相鄰的語系的語法格系統非常相似。葉尼塞語在西伯利亞語言中也比較獨特,如聲調、前綴式動詞屈折與高度複雜的詞法音位學變化。[19]
據描述,葉尼塞語最多有4個聲調,最少沒有聲調。這些「聲調」與聲門化、元音長度和氣聲同時出現,與尚未發展出聲調的上古漢語的情形極其相似。葉尼塞語的動詞形態非常複雜。
北支 | 南支 | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
凱特語 | 尤格語 | 科特-阿桑 | 阿林-旁普科爾 | |||
科特語方言 | 阿桑語 | 阿林語 | 旁普科爾語 | |||
1單 | āˑ(t) | āt | ai | aj | ai | ad |
2單 | ūˑ | ū | au | au | au | u |
3單 | būˑ | bū | uju ~ hatu(陽) uja ~ hata(陰) |
bari | au | adu |
1復 | ɤ̄ˑt ~ ɤ́tn | ɤ́tn | ajoŋ | ajuŋ | aiŋ | adɨŋ |
2復 | ɤ́kŋ | kɤ́kŋ | auoŋ ~ aoŋ | avun | aŋ | ajaŋ |
3復 | būˑŋ | béìŋ | uniaŋ ~ hatien | hatin | itaŋ | ? |
下表展現了葉尼塞語系的數詞及構擬的嘗試:[20]
詞義 | 北支 | 南支 | 構擬 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
凱特語方言 | 尤格語 | 科特-阿桑 | 阿林-旁普科爾 | ||||
SK | 科特語 | 阿桑語 | 阿林語 | 旁普科爾語 | Starostin | ||
1 | qūˑs | χūs | huːtʃa | hutʃa | qusej | xuta | *xu-sa |
2 | ɯ̄ˑn | ɯ̄n | iːna | ina | kina | hinɛaŋ | *xɨna |
3 | dɔˀŋ | dɔˀŋ | toːŋa | taŋa | tʲoŋa ~ tʲuːŋa | dóŋa | *doʔŋa |
4 | sīˑk | sīk | tʃeɡa ~ ʃeːɡa | ʃeɡa | tʃaɡa | ziang | *si- |
5 | qāˑk | χāk | keɡa ~ χeːɡa | keɡa | qala | hejlaŋ | *qä- |
6 | aˀ ~ à | àː | χelutʃa | ɡejlutʃa | ɨɡa | aɡɡɛaŋ | *ʔaẋV |
7 | ɔˀŋ | ɔˀŋ | χelina | ɡejlina | ɨnʲa | onʲaŋ | *ʔoʔn- |
10 | qɔ̄ˑ | χɔ̄ | haːɡa ~ haɡa | xaha | qau ~ hioɡa | hajaŋ | *ẋɔGa |
20 | ɛˀk | ɛˀk | iːntʰukŋ | inkukn | kinthjuŋ | hédiang | *ʔeʔk ~ xeʔk |
100 | kiˀ | kiˀ | ujaːx | jus | jus | útamssa | *kiʔ ~ ɡiʔ / *ʔalVs-(tamsV) |
下表是另外一些基礎詞及構擬的嘗試:[20]
詞義 | 北支 | 南支 | 構擬 | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
凱特語方言 | 尤格語 | 科特-阿桑 | 阿林-旁普科爾 | ||||||||
SK | NK | CK | 科特語 | 阿桑語 | 阿林語 | 旁普科爾語 | Vajda | Starostin | Werner | ||
落葉松 | sɛˀs | sɛˀs | šɛˀš | sɛˀs | šet | čet | čit | tag | *čɛˀç | *seʔs | *sɛʔt / *tɛʔt |
河 | sēˑs | sēˑs | šēˑš | sēs | šet | šet | sat | tat | *cēˑc | *ses | *set / *tet |
石 | tʌˀs | tʌˀs | tʌˀš | čʌˀs | šiš | šiš | kes | kit | *cʰɛˀs | *čɨʔs | *t'ɨʔs |
手指 | tʌˀq | tʌˀq | tʌˀq | tʌˀχ | tʰoχ | ? | intoto | tok | *tʰɛˀq | *tǝʔq | *thǝʔq |
樹脂 | dīˑk | dīˑk | dīˑk | dʲīk | čik | ? | ? | ? | *čīˑk | *ǯik (~-g, -ẋ) | *d'ik |
狼 | qɯ̄ˑt | qɯ̄ˑti | qɯ̄ˑtə | χɯ̄ˑt | (boru ← 突厥語) | qut | xotu | *qʷīˑtʰi | *qɨte (˜ẋ-) | *qʌthǝ | |
冬 | kɤ̄ˑt | kɤ̄ˑti | kɤ̄ˑte | kɤ̄ˑt | keːtʰi | ? | lot | lete | *kʷeˑtʰi | *gǝte | *kǝte |
光 | kʌˀn | kʌˀn | kʌˀn | kʌˀn | kin | ? | lum | ? | *kʷɛˀn | *gǝʔn- | ? |
人 | kɛˀd | kɛˀd | kɛˀd | kɛˀtʲ | hit | het | kit | kit | *kɛˀt | *keʔt | ? |
2 | ɯ̄ˑn | ɯ̄ˑn | ɯ̄ˑn | ɯ̄n | in | in | kin | hin | *kʰīˑn | *xɨna | *(k)ɨn |
水 | ūˑl | ūˑl | ūˑl | ūr | ul | ul | kul | ul | *kʰul | *qoʔl (~ẋ-, -r) | ? |
樺木 | ùs | ùːse | ùːsə | ùːʰs | uča | uuča | kus | uta | *kʰuχʂa | *xūsa | *kuʔǝt'ǝ |
雪橇 | súùl | súùl | šúùl | sɔ́ùl | čogar | čɛgar | šal | tsɛl | *tsehʷəl | *soʔol | *sogǝl (~č/t'-ʎ) |
與其他語系的可能關係
2008年之前,很少有語言學家認為葉尼塞語和其他語系有什麼關係,有人認為葉尼塞語同歐亞大陸的大多數作通型配列語言有遙遠的聯繫。
德內-葉尼塞語門
2008年,西華盛頓大學的愛德華·瓦伊達提出了葉尼塞語同北美洲納-德內語系的發生關係。[21]在論文發表時(2010),很多納-德內語和葉尼塞語專家都對這份工作給予了積極的評價。[22]賈雷德·戴蒙德對論文集的批判性評論[23]和2011年末瓦伊達的回覆[24],清楚地表明這問題到目前仍不是定論。2011年,Keren Rice和賈雷德·戴蒙德還發表了另外兩篇關於該論文集的評論。
卡拉蘇克語系
卡拉蘇克假說將葉尼塞語同布魯夏斯基語聯繫在一起。A.P. Dulson[25]和V.N. Toporov[26]等人提出了這一觀點。目前最著名的卡拉蘇克假說倡導者無我推測,布魯紹人是印歐人征服印度河流域後,從中亞遷徙出的一部分。[27]
漢藏語系
Tailleur[28]和Werner[29]指出,M.A. Castrén (1856)、James Byrne (1892)、G.J. Ramstedt (1907)等最早提出的一些關於葉尼塞人群遺傳關係的論文認為,葉尼塞語是漢藏語系的北親。Kai Donner[30]和Karl Bouda後來也重新提出了這些觀點。[31]一份2008年的研究進一步證實了葉尼塞語和漢藏語之間可能存在的關係,並舉了幾個可能的同源詞。[32]高晶一 (2014)發現了12個同源的漢藏語-葉尼塞語基本詞,並認為這些詞不可能是由一方借入另一方的。[33]愛德華·薩丕爾也提出了納-德內語系與漢藏語系之間的關係,即「漢德內語系」。他大約在1920年開始相信,納-德內語同漢藏語的關係比其他美洲語系更接近。[34]愛德華·瓦伊達提出的德內-葉尼塞語系再次引起了語言學家的興趣,如Geoffrey Caveney (2014),研究了支持漢-德內假說的證據。
德內–高加索語系
Bouda在20世紀30年代到50年代的各種文獻中描述了一個語言網絡,除了葉尼塞語和漢藏語還包括北高加索語系和布魯夏斯基語,其中一些形式被稱作「漢-高加索語」。R. Bleichsteiner[35]、O.G. Tailleur[36]、已故的斯塔羅斯金[37]和Sergei L. Nikolayev[38]等人的著作中都有關於這些聯繫的記載。J.D. Bengtson、[39]V. Blažek、[40]約瑟·哈羅德·格林伯格、[41]M. Ruhlen[42]等人也提出了這一假說,並常將其擴展到德內–高加索語。George Starostin繼承了其父在葉尼塞語、漢-高加索語和其他領域的工作。[43] 這一理論在其他語言學家那裡很有爭議,或被視為過時的理論。[44][45][46]
相關條目
注釋
參考文獻
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- ^ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Vovin, Alexander. "Did the Xiongnu speak a Yeniseian language?". Central Asiatic Journal 44/1 (2000), pp. 87–104.
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- ^ 9.0 9.1 Georg, Stefan. The Gradual Disappearance of a Eurasian Language Family. Language Death and Language Maintenance: Theoretical, Practical and Descriptive Approaches. Current Issues in Linguistic Theory. January 2003, 240: 89 [2023-11-15]. ISBN 978-90-272-4752-0. doi:10.1075/cilt.240.07geo. (原始內容存檔於2023-04-08) (英語).
- ^ 10.0 10.1 Vajda, Edward J. Languages and Prehistory of Central Siberia. John Benjamins Publishing. 2004-01-01. ISBN 978-90-272-4776-6 (英語).
- ^ 11.0 11.1 Blažek, Václav. Toward the question of Yeniseian homeland in perspective of toponymy (PDF). [2023-11-15]. (原始內容存檔 (PDF)於2021-09-21).
- ^ Flegontov, Pavel; Changmai, Piya; Zidkova, Anastassiya; Logacheva, Maria D.; Altınışık, N. Ezgi; Flegontova, Olga; Gelfand, Mikhail S.; Gerasimov, Evgeny S.; Khrameeva, Ekaterina E. Genomic study of the Ket: a Paleo-Eskimo-related ethnic group with significant ancient North Eurasian ancestry. Scientific Reports. 2016-02-11, 6: 20768. Bibcode:2016NatSR...620768F. PMC 4750364 . PMID 26865217. arXiv:1508.03097 . doi:10.1038/srep20768.
- ^ Sicoli, Mark A.; Holton, Gary. Linguistic Phylogenies Support Back-Migration from Beringia to Asia. PLOS ONE. 2014-03-12, 9 (3): e91722. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...991722S. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3951421 . PMID 24621925. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0091722 .
- ^ See Vovin 2000, Vovin 2002 and Pulleyblank 2002
- ^ See Vajda 2008a
- ^ Sinor, Denis. 23.4 The Xiongnu Empire. Herrmann, J.; Zürcher, E. (編). History of Humanity. Multiple History. III: From the Seventh Century B.C. to the Seventh Century A.D. UNESCO. 1996: 452. ISBN 978-92-3-102812-0.
- ^ E. G. Pulleyblank, "The consonontal system of old Chinese" [Pt 1], Asia Major, vol. IX (1962), pp. 1–2.
- ^ See Anderson 2003
- ^ Georg, Stefan. Yeniseic languages and the Siberian linguistic area. Evidence and Counter-Evidence. Festschrift Frederik Kortlandt. Studies in Slavic and General Linguistics 33. Amsterdam / New York: Rodopi. 2008: 151–168.
- ^ 20.0 20.1 See Vajda 2007, Starostin 1982 and Werner (???)
- ^ See Vajda 2010
- ^ Language Log » The languages of the Caucasus. [2023-11-15]. (原始內容存檔於2023-07-09).
- ^ Lyle Campbell, 2011, "Review of The Dene-Yeniseian Connection (Kari and Potter)," International Journal of American Linguistics 77:445–451. "In summary, the proposed Dene-Yeniseian connection cannot be embraced at present. The hypothesis is indeed stimulating, advanced by a serious scholar trying to use appropriate procedures. Unfortunately, neither the lexical evidence (with putative sound correspondences) nor the morphological evidence adduced is sufficient to support a distant genetic relationship between Na-Dene and Yeniseian." (pg. 450).
- ^ Edward Vajda, 2011, "A Response to Campbell," International Journal of American Linguistics 77:451–452. "It remains incumbent upon the proponents of the DY hypothesis to provide solutions to at least some of the unresolved problems identified in Campbell's review or in DYC itself. My opinion is that every one of them requires a convincing solution before the relationship between Yeniseian and Na-Dene can be considered settled." (pg. 452).
- ^ See Dulson 1968
- ^ See Toporov 1971
- ^ See Van Driem 2001
- ^ See Tailleur 1994
- ^ See Werner 1994
- ^ See Donner 1930
- ^ See Bouda 1963 and Bouda 1957
- ^ Sedláček, Kamil. The Yeniseian Languages of the 18th Century and Ket and Sino-Tibetan Word Comparisons. Central Asiatic Journal. 2008, 52 (2): 219–305 [2023-11-15]. ISSN 0008-9192. JSTOR 41928491. S2CID 163603829. doi:10.13173/CAJ/2008/2/6. (原始內容存檔於2023-04-08).
- ^ 高晶一. 確定夏國及凱特人的語言為屬於漢語族和葉尼塞語系共同詞源. Central Asiatic Journal. 2017, 60 (1–2): 51–58 [2023-11-15]. ISSN 0008-9192. JSTOR 10.13173/centasiaj.60.1-2.0051. S2CID 165893686. doi:10.13173/centasiaj.60.1-2.0051. (原始內容存檔於2023-10-27).
- ^ Ruhlen, Merritt. The origin of the Na-Dene. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 1998-11-10, 95 (23): 13994–13996. Bibcode:1998PNAS...9513994R. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 25007 . PMID 9811914. doi:10.1073/pnas.95.23.13994 (英語).
- ^ See Bleichsteiner 1930
- ^ See Tailleur 1958 and Tailleur 1994
- ^ See Starostin 1982, Starostin 1984, Starostin 1991, Starostin & Ruhlen 1994
- ^ See Nikola(y)ev 1991
- ^ See Bengtson 1994, Bengtson 1998, Bengtson 2008
- ^ See Blažek & Bengtson 1995
- ^ See Greenberg & Ruhlen, Greenberg & Ruhlen 1997
- ^ See Ruhlen 1997, Ruhlen 1998a, Ruhlen 1998b
- ^ See Reshetnikov & Starostin 1995a, Reshetnikov & Starostin 1995b, Dybo & Starostin
- ^ Trask, R. L. (2000). The Dictionary of Historical and Comparative Linguistics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. pg. 85
- ^ Dalby, Andrew (1998). Dictionary of Languages. New York: Columbia University Press. pg. 434
- ^ Sanchez-Mazas, Alicia; Blench, Roger; Ross, Malcolm D.; Peiros, Ilia; Lin, Marie. Past Human Migrations in East Asia: Matching Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics. Routledge. 2008-07-25 [2023-11-15]. ISBN 9781134149629. (原始內容存檔於2024-05-23) (英語).
書目
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- BENGTSON, John D. (1994). Edward Sapir and the 'Sino-Dené' Hypothesis. Anthropological Science 102.3: 207-230.
- BENGTSON, John D. (1998). Caucasian and Sino-Tibetan: A Hypothesis of S. A. Starostin. General Linguistics, Vol. 36, no. 1/2, 1998 (1996). Pegasus Press, University of North Carolina, Asheville, North Carolina.
- BENGTSON, John D. (1998). Some Yenisseian Isoglosses. Mother tongue IV, 1998.
- BENGTSON, J.D. (2008). Materials for a Comparative Grammar of the Dene-Caucasian (Sino-Caucasian) Languages.(頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館) In Aspects of Comparative Linguistics, v. 3., pp. 45-118. Moscow: RSUH Publishers.
- BLAŽEK, Václav, and John D. BENGTSON. 1995. "Lexica Dene-Caucasica." Central Asiatic Journal 39.1: 11-50, 39.2: 161-164.
- BLEICHSTEINER, Robert. (1930). "Die werschikisch-burischkische Sprache im Pamirgebiet und ihre Stellung zu den Japhetitensprachen des Kaukasus [The Werchikwar-Burushaski language in the Pamir region and its position relative to the Japhetic languages of the Caucasus]." Wiener Beiträge zur Kunde des Morgenlandes 1: 289-331.
- BOUDA, Karl. (1936). Jenisseisch-tibetische Wortgleichungen [Yeniseian-Tibetan word equivalents]. Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft 90: 149-159.
- BOUDA, Karl. (1957). Die Sprache der Jenissejer. Genealogische und morphologische Untersuchungen [The language of the Yeniseians. Genealogical and morphological investigations]. Anthropos 52.1-2: 65-134.
- DONNER, Kai. (1930). Über die Jenissei-Ostiaken und ihre Sprache [About the Yenisei ostyaks and their language]. Journal de la Société Finno-ougrienne 44.
- VAN DRIEM, George. (2001). The Languages of the Himalayas. Leiden: Brill.
- (DULSON, A.P.) Дульзон, А.П. (1968). Кетский язык [The Ket language]. Томск: Издательство Томского Университета [Tomsk: Tomsk University Press].
- DYBO, Anna V., STAROSTIN G. S. (2008). In Defense of the Comparative Method, or the End of the Vovin Controversy.(頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館) // Originally in: Aspects of Comparative Linguistics, v. 3. Moscow: RSUH Publishers, pp. 109-258.
- GEORG, Stefan. (2007). A Descriptive Grammar of Ket (Yenisei-Ostyak)[失效連結], Volume I: Introduction, Phonology, Morphology, Folkestone/Kent: Global Oriental. ISBN 1-901903-58-3; ISBN 978-1-901903-58-4
- GREENBERG, J.H., and M. Ruhlen. (1992). Linguistic Origins of Native Americans. Scientific American 267.5 (November): 94–99.
- GREENBERG, J.H., and M. Ruhlen. (1997). L'origine linguistique des Amérindiens[The linguistic origin of the Amerindians]. Pour la Science (Dossier, October), 84–89.
- KAYE, A.S. (1992). Distant genetic relationship and Edward Sapir. Semiotica 91.3/4: 273-300.
- NIKOLA(Y)EV, Sergei L. (1991). Sino-Caucasian Languages in America. In Shevoroshkin (1991): 42-66.
- PULLEYBLANK, Edwin G. (2002). Central Asia and Non-Chinese Peoples of Ancient China (Collected Studies, 731).
- RESHETNIKOV, Kirill Yuriy; STAROSTIN, George S. (1995). The Structure of the Ket Verbal Form.(頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館) // Originally in: The Ket Volume (Studia Ketica), v. 4. Moscow: Languages of Russian Culture, pp. 7-121.
- RESHETNIKOV, Yuriy Kirill; STAROSTIN, George S. (1995). Morphology of the Kott Verb and Reconstruction of the Proto-Yeniseian Verbal System.(頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館) // Originally in: The Ket Volume (Studia Ketica), v. 4. Moscow: Languages of Russian Culture, pp. 122-175.
- RUHLEN, M. (1997). Une nouvelle famille de langues: le déné-caucasien [A new language family: Dene-Caucasian]. Pour la Science (Dossier, October) 68–73.
- RUHLEN, Merritt. (1998a). Dene-Caucasian: A New Linguistic Family. In The Origins and Past of Modern Humans – Towards Reconciliation, ed. by Keiichi Omoto and Phillip V. Tobias, Singapore, World Scientific, 231–46.
- RUHLEN, Merritt. (1998b). The Origin of the Na-Dene. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 95: 13994–96.
- RUBICZ, R., MELVIN, K.L., CRAWFORD, M.H. 2002. Genetic Evidence for the phylogenetic relationship between Na-Dene and Yeniseian speakers. Human Biology, Dec 1 2002 74 (6) 743-761
- SAPIR, Edward. (1920). Comparative Sino-Tibetan and Na-Dené Dictionary. Ms. Ledger. American Philosophical Society Na 20a.3. (Microfilm)
- SHAFER, Robert. (1952). Athapaskan and Sino-Tibetan. International Journal of American Linguistics 18: 12-19.
- SHAFER, Robert. (1957). Note on Athapaskan and Sino-Tibetan. International Journal of American Linguistics 23: 116-117.
- STACHOWSKI, Marek (1996). Über einige altaische Lehnwörter in den Jenissej-Sprachen. In Studia Etymologica Cracoviensia 1: 91-115.
- STACHOWSKI, Marek (1997). Altaistische Anmerkungen zum 「Vergleichenden Wörterbuch der Jenissej-Sprachen」. In Studia Etymologica Cracoviensia 2: 227-239.
- STACHOWSKI, Marek (2004). Anmerkungen zu einem neuen vergleichenden Wörterbuch der Jenissej-Sprachen. In Studia Etymologica Cracoviensia 9: 189-204.
- STACHOWSKI, Marek (2006a). Arabische Lehnwörter in den Jenissej-Sprachen des 18. Jahrhunderts und die Frage der Sprachbünde in Sibirien. In Studia Linguistica Universitatis Iagellonicae Cracoviensis 123 (2006): 155-158.
- STACHOWSKI, Marek (2006b). Persian loan words in 18th century Yeniseic and the problem of linguistic areas in Siberia. In A. Krasnowolska / K. Maciuszak / B. Mękarska (ed.): In the Orient where the Gracious Light... [Festschrift for A. Pisowicz], Kraków: 179-184.
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- (STAROSTIN, Sergei A.) Старостин, Сергей А. (1984). Гипотеза о генетических связях сино-тибетских языков с енисейскими и северокавказскими языками [A hypothesis on genetic relations of the Sino-Tibetan languages to the Yeniseian and the North Caucasian languages]. In: Лингвистическая реконструкция и древнейшая история Востока [Linguistic reconstruction and the prehistory of the East], 4: Древнейшая языковая ситуация в восточной Азии [The prehistoric language situation in eastern Asia], ed. И. Ф. Вардуль (I.F. Varduľ) et al. Москва: Институт востоковедения [Moscow: Institute of Oriental Studies of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 19-38. [see Starostin 1991]
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