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帝國議會(拉丁語：Dieta Imperii 或 Comitium Imperiale; 德語：Reichstag) 是神聖羅馬帝國的審議與立法機構。 議會成員被稱為帝國政治體，並被分為三個議事團。最早起源於中世紀的宮廷集會，這樣的集會隨着時代變遷最終形成永久且常態化的帝國議會。從1663年開始直到1806年帝國解體為止，帝國議會於雷根斯堡形成並維持長達百年的永久會期。
根據封建法，帝國政治體的權力僅次於神聖羅馬皇帝。持有一個帝國領地代表帝國議會中擁有一票。因此一名議會成員可能依據其所擁有之領地數量而在帝國議會中同時擁有數張選票甚而能於不同的議事團中參與投票。議會成員一般不直接參與議事，而是派遣代表前往位於雷根斯堡的永久議會。晚期的帝國議會實際上即為帝國各領地大使的永久集會。
歷史
如同帝國本身，帝國議會的地位及功能隨着時間而演變，在這過程中各個帝國領地獲得越來越大的自治權力，而與之相對的是帝國整體實力的不斷削弱。在帝國議會剛開始出現時，招集議會並沒有固定的時間或地點。會議最初的起源來自於古代法蘭克王國成員的各日爾曼部落的公爵聚集並做出各種重要決定的會議。這種集會的原因可能是因為基於古日爾曼法，領導者必須獲得其他人的支持。例如根據法蘭克皇家編年史，早在薩克森戰爭時，查理大帝領導下的議會就於777年在帕德博恩開會，而802-803年於亞琛招開的議會則正式頒佈有關新征服的薩克森地區與其他部族的法律。
於919年在弗里茨拉爾招開的議會上，帝國公爵們選出了薩克森的亨利一世為首任日爾曼國王，藉此克服法蘭克與薩克森之間長期對立的問題並為日爾曼王國的出現奠下基礎。在首次遠征意大利後，1158年的隆卡格利亞議會所訂下之法律徹底改變了帝國從未正式明文規範的憲法，這次議會最終造成帝國中央集權的持續衰弱及地方諸侯的實力增長。1356年議會招開後查理四世頒佈的金璽詔書奠定了領地主權(Landesherrschaft)的原則，即各領主大公對其領地擁有極大程度的自治主權。此詔書並正式規範帝國皇帝的選舉流程，並訂下擁有投票權的七位選帝侯。教宗在皇帝選舉過程中並未直接涉入，而是針對選帝侯們選出的皇帝候選人進行承認與加冕。
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19世紀Hermann Wislicenus的畫作
然而直到15世紀晚期之前，這個議會並非帝國的正式官方機構，而是親王及公爵們不定期在帝國皇帝的宮廷中組織的會談；這些聚會一般被稱為 宮廷會議。從1489年開始，集會才被正式稱為 帝國議會，並且在其中分為不同的議事團(collegia，"colleges")。議事團一開始只有兩團，分別由各選帝侯及其他公爵與親王們組成。稍後，帝國內享有帝國直轄權而實際上獨立於各區域領主並直接受皇帝管轄的各帝國自由城市也在議會中被接納成為議會中的第三個議事團。
在歷次帝國議會中，尤其是從1495年沃木斯議會開始，議會各方面曾經數次試圖對帝國進行改革並避免帝國解體，然而這些嘗試皆無明顯效果。相對的從1648年簽訂西發里亞和約並且進一步限制帝國皇帝權限使其只能接受議會所做的一切決定開始，帝國解體的過程進一步的加快了。和約的簽訂實質上剝奪了皇帝剩餘不多的權力，因而從此時開始直到1806年帝國正式解體為止，神聖羅馬帝國僅代表其範圍內各獨立邦國的集合統稱。
帝國議會歷史上最有名的幾次會議包括：頒佈了帝國改革法案的1495年沃木斯議會；馬丁·路德被審判及宣告為異端的1521年沃木斯議會；1526與1529年兩次施派爾議會針對馬丁·路德禁令與宗教改革的相關決定與抗議造就了新教的崛起及其命名來源(Protestant)；數次於紐倫堡招開的議會亦涉及宗教改革。帝國議會的招開地點不停變換，直到1663年於雷根斯堡招開永久議會後才保持於固定地點舉辦。
Participants
Since 1489, the Diet comprised three colleges:
Electors
The Electoral college (Kurfürstenrat), led by the Prince-Archbishop of Mainz in his capacity as Archchancellor of Germany. The seven Prince-electors were designated by the Golden Bull of 1356:
- three ecclesiastical Prince-Bishops,
- the Prince-Archbishop of Mainz as Archchancellor of Germany
- the Prince-Archbishop of Cologne as Archchancellor of Italy
- the Prince-Archbishop of Trier as Archchancellor of Burgundy
- four secular Princes,
- the King of Bohemia as Archcupbearer
- the Elector of the Palatinate as Archsteward (Erztruchsess)
- the Elector of Saxony as Archmarshal
- the Margrave of Brandenburg as Archchamberlain
The number increased to eight, when in 1623 the Duke of Bavaria took over the electoral dignity of the Count Palatine, who himself received a separate vote in the electoral college according to the 1648 Peace of Westphalia (Causa Palatina), including the high office of an Archtreasurer. In 1692 the Elector of Brunswick-Lüneburg (Hannover) became the ninth Prince-elector as Archbannerbearer during the Nine Years' War.
In the War of the Bavarian Succession, the electoral dignities of the Palatinate and Bavaria were merged, approved by the 1779 Treaty of Teschen. The German Mediatisation of 1803 entailed the dissolution of the Cologne and Trier Prince-archbishoprics, the Prince-Archbishop of Mainz and German Archchancellor received—as compensation for his lost territory occupied by Revolutionary France—the newly established Principality of Regensburg. In turn, four secular princes were elevated to prince-electors:
These changes however had little effect, as with the abdication of Francis II as Holy Roman Emperor the Empire was dissolved only three years later.
Princes
The college of Imperial Princes (Reichsfürstenrat or Fürstenbank) incorporated the Imperial Counts as well as immediate lords, Prince-Bishops and Imperial abbots. Strong in members, though often discordant, the second college tried to preserve its interests against the dominance of the Prince-electors.
The House of Princes was again subdivided into an ecclesiastical and a secular bench. Remarkably, the ecclesiastical bench was headed by the—secular—Archduke of Austria and the Burgundian duke of the Habsburg Netherlands (held by Habsburg Spain from 1556). As the Austrian House of Habsburg had failed to assume the leadership of the secular bench, they received the guidance over the ecclesiastical princes instead. The first ecclesiastical prince was the Archbishop of Salzburg as Primas Germaniae; the Prince-Archbishop of Besançon, though officially a member until the 1678 Treaty of Nijmegen, did not attend the Diet's meetings.
The ecclesiastical bench also comprised the Grand Master and Deutschmeister of the Teutonic Knights, as well as the Grand Prior of the Monastic State of the Knights Hospitaller at Heitersheim. The Prince-Bishopric of Lübeck remained an ecclesiastical member even after it had turned Protestant, ruled by diocesan administrators from the House of Holstein-Gottorp from 1586. The Prince-Bishopric of Osnabrück, according to the 1648 Peace of Westphalia was under alternating rule of a Catholic bishop and a Lutheran bishop from the House of Brunswick-Lüneburg.
Each member of the Princes' College held either a single vote (Virilstimme) or a collective vote (Kuriatstimme). Due to the Princes, their single vote from 1582 strictly depended on their immediate fiefs; this principle led to an accumulation of votes, when one ruler held several territories in personal union. Counts and Lords only were entitled to collective votes, they therefore formed separate colleges like the Wetterau Association of Imperial Counts and mergers within the Swabian, the Franconian and the Lower Rhenish–Westphalian Circles. Likewise, on the ecclesiastical bench, the Imperial abbots joined a Swabian or Rhenish college.
In the German Mediatisation of 1803, numerous ecclesiastical territories were annexed by secular estates. A reform of the Princes' college was however not carried out until the Empire's dissolution in 1806.
Cities
The college of Imperial Cities (Reichsstädtekollegium) evolved from 1489 onwards, it contributed greatly to the development of the Imperial Diets as a political institution. Nevertheless, the collective vote of the cities initially was of inferior importance until a 1582 Recess of the Augsburg Diet. The college was led by the city council of the actual venue; with the implementation of the Perpetual Diet in 1663, the chair passed to Regensburg.
The Imperial cities also divided into a Swabian and Rhenish bench. The Swabian cities were led by Nuremberg, Augsburg and Regensburg, the Rhenish cities by Cologne, Aachen and Frankfurt.
For a complete list of members of the Imperial Diet from 1792, near the end of the Empire, see List of Reichstag participants (1792).
Religious bodies
After the Peace of Westphalia, religious matters could no longer be decided by a majority vote of the colleges. Instead, the Reichstag would separate into Catholic and Protestant bodies, which would discuss the matter separately and then negotiate an agreement with each other.[2] The Catholic body, or corpus catholicum, was headed by the Archbishop-Elector of Mainz.[3]
The Protestant body, or corpus evangelicorum, was headed by the Elector of Saxony. At meetings of the Protestant body, Saxony would introduce each topic of discussion, after which Brandenburg-Prussia and Hanover would speak, followed by the remaining states in order of size. When all the states had spoken, Saxony would weigh the votes and announce a consensus.
Frederick Augustus I, Elector of Saxony converted to Catholicism in 1697 in order to become King of Poland, but the Electorate itself remained officially Protestant and retained the directorship of the Protestant body. When the Elector's son also converted to Catholicism, Prussia and Hanover attempted to take over the directorship in 1717–1720, but without success. The Electors of Saxony would head the Protestant body until the end of the Holy Roman Empire.[3]
Collection of records
After the formation of the new German Empire in 1871, the Historical Commission of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences started to collect imperial records (Reichsakten) and imperial diet records (Reichstagsakten). In 1893 the commission published the first volume. At present the years 1524–1527 and years up to 1544 are being collected and researched. A volume dealing with the 1532 Diet of Regensburg, including the peace negotiations with the Protestants in Schweinfurt and Nuremberg, by Rosemarie Aulinger of Vienna was published in 1992.
Locations of Imperial Diets
- Note: this list is incomplete
See also
References
- ^ History of the Reformation in Germany, page 70, by Leopold von Ranke.
- ^ Peace Treaties of Westphalia (October 14/24, 1648) (PDF). German History in Documents and Images.
In religious and all other affairs in which the estates cannot be considered as one body, and when the Catholic estates and those of the Augsburg Confession are divided into two parties, the dispute is to be decided by amicable agreement alone, and neither side is to be bound by a majority vote.
- ^ 3.0 3.1 Kalipke, Andreas. The Corpus Evangelicorum. Coy, Marschke, and Sabean (編). The Holy Roman Empire, Reconsidered. Berghahn. 2010: 228–247.
Bibliography
- Peter Claus Hartmann: Das Heilige Römische Reich deutscher Nation in der Neuzeit 1486–1806. Stuttgart 2005, ISBN 3-15-017045-1.
- Axel Gotthard: Das Alte Reich 1495–1806. Darmstadt 2003, ISBN 3-534-15118-6
- Edgar Liebmann: Reichstag. In: Friedrich Jaeger (Hrsg.): Enzyklopädie der Neuzeit, Bd. 10: Physiologie-Religiöses Epos. Stuttgart 2009, str. 948–953, ISBN 3-534-17605-7
- Barbara Stollberg-Rilinger: Des Kaisers alte Kleider. Verfassungsgeschichte und Symbolsprache des Alten Reiches. München 2008, ISBN 978-3-406-57074-2
- Helmut Neuhaus: Das Reich in der frühen Neuzeit (Enzyklopädie Deutscher Geschichte, Band 42). München 2003, ISBN 3-486-56729-2.
- Heinz Angermeier: Das alte Reich in der deutschen Geschichte. Studien über Kontinuitäten und Zäsuren. München 1998, ISBN 3-486-55897-8
External links
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