拜占庭歷

拜占庭歷是一套拜占庭（東羅馬）帝國與東正教會歷史上使用過的曆法，歷史上被稱作「自創世以來的羅馬年（古希臘語：Ἔτη Γενέσεως Κόσμου κατὰ Ῥωμαίους）」或「創世年（古希臘語：Ἔτος Κτίσεως Κόσμου）」或「世界年（古希臘語：Ἔτος Κόσμου）」。東正教的普世牧首轄區於約公元691年至1728年，拜占庭帝國官方於988年-1453年，羅斯諸國於約988年-約1700年使用這套曆法，其他受拜占庭影響較大的國家，如塞爾維亞、保加利亞歷史上也曾使用這種曆法。

這套曆法與儒略曆基本相同，主要區別有兩點，一是以每年9月1日為新年第一天，紀年法則採用世界紀元，即以上帝創世的第一天為紀年之始。拜占庭宗教界以《舊約聖經》七十士譯本中的記載為基礎推算的上帝創世之年相當於公元前5509年，拜占庭歷的第一年為前5509年9月1日-前5508年8月31日。

外部鏈接

• Main feasts and commemorations. Orthodox Church of America. [2018-10-09]. （原始內容存檔於2018-10-09）. 
• Byzantine ways of reckoning time
• Calendar Era: Late Antiquity and Middle Ages: Christian era （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館） at SMSO Encyclopedia (Saudi Medical Site Online).
• Howlett, J. Biblical Chronology （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）. In, The Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent). New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908.
• Chronology of the Biblical Patriarchs.
• Church Calendar at Orthodoxwiki.

Hebrew calendar

• The Era of the Creation at Jewish Encyclopedia.
• The Jewish Calendar （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館） by Karl Hagen (medievalist).

更多閱讀

一手來源

• Doukas. Decline and Fall of Byzantium To The Ottoman Turks. An Annotated Translation by Harry J. Magoulias. Wayne State University Press, 1975.
• George Syncellus. The Chronography of George Synkellos: a Byzantine Chronicle of Universal History from the Creation. Transl. Prof. Dr. William Adler & Paul Tuffin. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.
• 阿伯拉罕·伊本·埃茲拉, Abraham ben Meïr, (1092–1167). Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch: Genesis (Bereshit). (Vol.1 – Genesis). Transl. and annotated by H. Norman Strickman & Arthur M. Silver. Menorah Pub. Co., New York, N.Y., 1988.
• 塞克斯圖斯·尤利烏斯·阿非利加努斯. Extant Writings III. The Extant Fragments of the Five Books of the Chronography of Julius Africanus.
• 尼基塔斯·霍尼亞提斯. O City of Byzantium, Annals of Niketas Choniates. Transl. by Harry J. Magoulias. Wayne State University Press, Detroit, 1984.
• 老普林尼. 博物志 (老普林尼), XVIII, 210.
• St. 該撒利亞的巴西流. Hexæmeron （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, 2nd Series (NPNF2). Transl. Philip Schaff, D.D., LL.D. (1819–1893): Volume VIII – Basil: Letters and Select Works. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, Michigan.
• St. 普瓦捷的依拉略. On the Trinity. Book IV.
• The Rudder (Pedalion): Comp. Hieromonk Agapius and monk Nicodemus the Hagiorite. First printed and published 1800. Trans. D. Cummings, [from the 5th edition published by John Nicolaides (Kesisoglou the Caesarian) in Athens, Greece in 1908], Chicago: The Orthodox Christian Educational Society, 1957. Repr., New York, N.Y.: Luna Printing Co., 1983.

• 宣信者狄奧法內斯. The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor: Byzantine and Near Eastern History, AD 284–813. Cyril Mango, Roger Scott, Geoffrey Greatrex (Eds.). Oxford University Press, 1997.
• 安條克的狄奧菲魯斯. Theophilus of Antioch to Autolycus. Book III. Chap XXIV (Chronology from Adam) – Chap. XXVIII (Leading Chronological Epochs).

二手來源

21世紀

• Anthony Bryer. "Chronology and Dating". In: Elizabeth Jeffreys, John Haldon, Robin Cormack . The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press, 2008. pp. 31–37.
• Dr. Iaakov Karcz. "Implications of some early Jewish sources for estimates of earthquake hazard in the Holy Land （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）". Annals of Geophysics, Vol. 47, N. 2/3, April/June 2004.
• Fr. Patrick Henry Reardon. Creation and the Patriarchal Histories: Orthodox Christian Reflections on the Book of Genesis. Conciliar Press, 2008.
• Fr. Seraphim Rose. GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, California, 2000.
• Frederick Deland Leete. Christian Brotherhoods. Kessinger Publishing, 2003.
• Paul James-Griffiths. Creation days and Orthodox Jewish Tradition （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）. AnswersinGenesis.org. March 2004.
• Paul Stephenson. "Translations from Byzantine Sources: The Imperial Centuries, c.700–1204: John Skylitzes, "Synopsis Historion": The Year 6508, in the 13th Indiction: the Byzantine dating system". November 2006.
• Pavel Kuzenkov. How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006.
• Prof. Charles Ellis (University of Bristol). "Russian Calendar (988–1917) （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）". The Literary Encyclopedia. 25 September 2008.
• Prof. Dr. Marcus Louis Rautman. "Time." In Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. pp. 3–8.
• Prof. Dr. Muhammad Shamsaddin Megalommatis. "Gueze – 『Ethiopian』: the Counterfeit Millennium". September 8, 2007.
• Prof. Dr. Roger T. Beckwith (D.D., D.Litt.). Calendar, Chronology, and Worship: Studies in Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）. Brill Academic Publishers, 2005. (Dr Beckwith served for twenty years on the Anglican-Orthodox Commission).
• The 正教研習本聖經. St. Athanasius Academy of Orthodox Theology. Elk Grove, California, 2008.

20世紀

• Barry Setterfield. Ancient Chronology in Scripture （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）. September 1999.
• Chisholm, Hugh (編). Chronology. Encyclopædia Britannica 6 (第11版). London: Cambridge University Press: 305–318. 1911. 
• Dr. Ben Zion Wacholder. "Biblical Chronology in the Hellenistic World Chronicles". in The Harvard Theological Review, Vol.61, No.3 (Jul., 1968), pp. 451–481.
• Dr. Ben Zion Wacholder. Essays on Jewish Chronology and Chronography. Ktav Pub. House, 1976.
• Dr. Floyd Nolan Jones. Chronology of the Old Testament. Master Books, Arizona, 1993. Repr. 2005. (supports Ussher's chronology, i.e. 4004 BC).
• E.G. Richards. Mapping Time: The Calendar and its History. Oxford University Press, 1998.
• Elias J. Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 2nd edition. Cornell University Press. 1980.
• Fr. Stanley S. Harakas. The Orthodox Church: 455 Questions and Answers. Light & Life Publishing, Minneapolis, 1988.
• George Ogg. "Hippolytus and the Introduction of the Christian Era". in Vigiliae Christianae, Vol.16, No.1 (Mar., 1962), pp. 2–18.
• Howlett, J. "Biblical Chronology （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）". In The Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent). New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908.
• Jack Finegan. Handbook of Biblical Chronology: Principles of Time Reckoning in the Ancient World and Problems of Chronology in the Bible. Hendrickson Publishers, 1998.
• Prof. Dr. William Adler. Time Immemorial: Archaic History and its Sources in Christian Chronography from Julius Africanus to George Syncellus. Washington, D.C. : Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1989.
• K.A. Worp. Chronological Observations on Later Byzantine Documents. 1985. University of Amsterdam.
• Foss, Clive. "Three Apparent Early Examples of the Era of Creation". Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, Bd. 31 (1978), pp. 241–246.
• Roger S. Bagnall, K. A. Worp. The Chronological Systems of Byzantine Egypt. Zutphen, 1978.
• V. Grumel. La Chronologie. Presses Universitaires France, Paris. 1958.
• Rev. Philip Schaff (1819–1893), Ed. "Era." Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge New Edition, 13 Vols., 1908–14. Vol. 4, pp. 163 （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）.
• Van der Essen, L. "Chronicon Paschale （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）". In The Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent). New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908.
• Yiannis E. Meimaris. Chronological Systems in Roman-Byzantine Palestine and Arabia. Athens, 1992.

19世紀以及更早

• John McClintock, James Strong. Cyclopedia of Biblical, theological, and ecclesiastical literature: Supplement （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）. V.2. Harper, 1887.
• Prof. Fr. Arsenius John Baptist Vuibert (Society of Saint-Sulpice). An Ancient History: From the Creation to the Fall of the Western Empire in A.D. 476 （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）. Baltimore: Foley, 1886.
• Samuel Abraham Poznański. "Ben Meir and the Origin of the Jewish Calendar". in The Jewish Quarterly Review, Vol. 10, No. 1 (Oct., 1897), pp. 152–161.
• Sir 托馬斯·布朗. Pseudodoxia Epidemica: Book VI. Ch. 1 – Of sundry common opinions Cosmographical and Historical. 1646; 6th ed., 1672. pp. 321–330.
• The Popular Encyclopedia: being a general dictionary of arts, sciences, literature, biography, history, and political economy （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）. (Vol. 3, Part 1). Glasgow: Blackie and Son, 1841.
• Thomas Spencer Baynes. "Chronology: Era of the Creation of the World.」 The Encyclopædia Britannica: a dictionary of arts, sciences, and general literature. 9th Ed., Vol. 5. A. & C. Black, 1833. pp. 709–754.