古罗马经济

古罗马的经济

罗马共和国时期,罗马经济主要为农业经济,以谷物和酒类等货品的交易为中心。[2] 当时的金融市场就建构在这些交易上,而个人事业和公共设施兴建所需要的借款则主要来自因家庭间联系而组成的金融仲介[3] 在农产或现金短缺的时期,罗马官员和铸币者英语Moneyer(被官方允许自行铸造货币的个人)常会依赖加铸货币来度过该时期。这个现象也发生在了漫长的第一次布匿战争中,造成了经济的扭曲和财务困难。罗马帝国早期,人们开始使用货币来表达价格债务,且基本的银行体系已经成形。[4] 罗马皇帝会发行印有他们肖像的货币做为政治宣传,以建立良好的公众印象及彰显他们的财富和权力。[5] 罗马帝国的经济时常会有不稳,部分原因是一些罗马皇帝会发行货币以资助一些高调的皇家项目。例如大型的公共建设,或是发起一些可作为政治宣传,但实际产生的利益较少的战争。[4]

图为罗马帝国一些地区于公元一年左右的地区生产毛额[1]
君士坦丁二世时期发行的索币,背面刻有维多利亚的形象。她是最后出现在古罗马硬币上的神祗之一,她后来因为基督宗教的规定而逐渐转变成了天使的形象[6]

银行体系的建立,使得不需透过硬币就能进行的大金额交易成为可能,并造就了法定货币。由于没有中央银行,因此会由专业的存款银行家(英语:deposit banker)或称钱商、钱庄主(拉丁语:argentarius或是coactor argentarius,后来又称:nummularius)替人保存定期或活期存款,并将钱出借给第三方。[7]由于通常情况下,当时的银行家可用的资本总是超过众借款人所需要的金额,因此银行家可能会借出一些颇具风险的贷款,或是允许延长信用期间到具风险的程度。[8][9]罗马的元老阶级有著大量的私人借贷,他们既担任债权人又同时身为借款人,并且会根据社交关系向别人出借贷款。[4]古典时代的罗马银行通常采部分准备金银行制度英语Fractional-reserve banking,意即银行的存款准备金比总体存户的存款金额还低,因为当时的银行并没有动机去保障发生挤兑存款人的权益[4]对于当时的罗马人来说,尤其因为塞内卡思想的影响,而普遍认为只要是和商业有关系的人,就应该拥有能提供贷款和产生债务的权利[10]这种寻求法定货币的思想趋势也造就了货币供应量的起伏不定。[10]

安敦尼王朝塞维鲁王朝之间的罗马皇帝全面的降低了货币的内在价值英语Debasement,尤其是第纳里乌斯的价值,因为当时急切地需要筹措薪资支付给军队。[11]康茂德皇帝统治期间,突如其来的通货膨胀损害了信用市场。[8]到了200年代中期,贵金属币的供应量急剧下降。[12]三世纪危机时期的种种问题如远距交易的减少、矿业停摆以及外敌将罗马帝国境内的金币转移至境外等,造成了直到公元300年为止货币供应量和银行业的大幅退化。[13]尽管罗马帝国的货币长久以来都是法定货币或称信用货币,民众对于货币支付能力的忧心仍旧在奥勒良皇帝统治期间来到了高点,且银行家对于中央政府发行的货币也已失去了信心。尽管在此之后的皇帝戴克里先发行了索币以取代既有的黄金含量较低的金币,并推行了货币改革,罗马帝国的信用市场依旧回复不到从前的稳健。[8]

矿冶

 
上图显示了西班牙拉斯梅德拉斯地区的特殊地形,这是由于罗马帝国时期所采用的一种名为“破坏山脉”(拉丁语:ruina montium)的采矿技术而导致的。

罗马帝国主要的矿产开采区有西班牙(开采金、银、铜、锡以及铅矿)、高卢(金、银、铁矿)、不列颠尼亚(主要开采铁、铅以及锡矿)、多瑙河地区诸行省英语Danubian provinces(金、铁矿)、马其顿色雷斯(金、银矿),以及小亚细亚(金、银、铁以及锡矿)。自奥古斯都统治期间开始,罗马帝国进行了大规模的采矿活动,并持续到了公元三世纪前期为止,因为当时的帝国逐渐衰弱,最终导致了矿业生产活动的停摆。例如罗马帝国于大约公元271年被迫放弃了达契亚行省英语Roman Dacia,而失去了对于当地金矿的掌握。到了公元四世纪期间,矿业活动才恢复了一定规模。[14]

 
由从格陵兰提取出的冰芯英语Ice core所估计的全球历史铅矿产量,其于一世纪时达到了巅峰,后来就急遽下降。[15]一直到了18世纪中期,全球的铅矿产量才超越了先前罗马人所创造的数字。

老普林尼称作“破坏山脉”(拉丁语ruina montium)的水利采矿英语Hydraulic mining技术使得罗马人能够以如同原始工业的规模来开采金属。[16]估计当时每年的铁矿产量达到了82,500公吨。[17]铜的年产量为15,000公吨,[18]而铅的年产量则有80,000公吨,[19]后两种矿物在当时的产量一直到了工业革命为止都没有被超越过。[20]而当时光西班牙地区的铅产量就占据了全球的四成。[21]之所以会有如此高的铅产量是因为当时的罗马正在大规模的开采银矿(年产量达到了200公吨),而铅则是银矿开采时产生的副产品。[22]在公元二世纪中期左右──罗马银存货量之最高峰,估计其存货达到了10,000公吨。这个数字是中世纪欧洲再加上公元800年左右的阿拔斯王朝的所有的银重量的五至十倍。[23]伴随著大规模的金属开采,格陵兰冰原的铅污染程度在罗马帝国时期达到了史前的四倍,之后又随之降低。[24]

随著水利采矿英语Hydraulic mining技术(冲刷找矿英语Hushing和就地洗矿英语Placer mining)的发明和远播,以及罗马人计画和实行大规模采矿工程的才能,他们得以用相当于原始工业的规模开采各种金属,不论是在各种贱金属或贵金属的生产量上,直至工业革命前都极少被超越过。[25]当时用以冶炼锻造金属,以及用以取暖的燃料,绝大多数是木材和木炭,而其中木炭的效果又比木材约好上了一倍。[26]此外,有些地区已经开始大量的开采煤炭。到了公元二世纪的晚期,不列颠尼亚几乎所有主要的煤田都已被开发利用,并开展了英格兰和北海沿岸的热络贸易,后来贸易又延伸到了内陆的莱茵兰地区,此时的当地已有使用烟煤作为冶炼铁矿的燃料。[27]

各种金属的年产量(单位:公吨)
年产量(公吨) 备注
82,500[28]
不列颠尼亚每人平均生产1.5公斤铁矿的估计套用到全罗马5,500万人口上[29]
15,000[30]
工业革命前最大的年生产量[31]
80,000[32]
工业革命前最大的年生产量[33]
200[34]00
公元二世纪中期左右,存货量达到了10,000公吨,是中世纪欧洲再加上公元800年左右的阿拔斯王朝的所有的银重量的五至十倍[35]
9[36]0000
仅估计阿斯图里亚斯伽莱里亚行省英语Callaecia以及卢西塔尼亚伊比利半岛全域)的年产量

交通

参考文献

  1. ^ Statistics on World Population, GDP and Per Capita GDP, 1–f>. [2021-02-17]. (原始内容存档于2011-07-16). 
  2. ^ Garnsey, Peter, et al. The Roman Empire: Economy, Society and Culture. 2nd ed., University of California Press, 2015, www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/j.ctt9qh25h.
  3. ^ Temin, Peter. “Financial Intermediation in the Early Roman Empire.” The Journal of Economic History, vol. 64, no. 3, 2004, pp. 705–733., www.jstor.org/stable/3874817.
  4. ^ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Andreau英语Jean Andreau, Banking and Business in the Roman World, p. 2; Harris, "The Nature of Roman Money," n.p.
  5. ^ Bond, Shelagh. The Coinage of the Early Roman Empire. Greece & Rome. October 1957, 4 (2): 149–159. JSTOR 642136. doi:10.1017/S001738350001593X. 
  6. ^ J. Rufus Fears英语J. Rufus Fears, "The Theology of Victory at Rome: Approaches and Problem," Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.17.2 (1981), pp. 752 and 824, and in the same volume, "The Cult of Virtues and Roman Imperial Ideology," p. 908.
  7. ^ Jean Andreau英语Jean Andreau, Banking and Business in the Roman World (Cambridge University Press, 1999), p. 2.
  8. ^ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Harris, "The Nature of Roman Money," in The Monetary Systems of the Greeks and Romans, n.p.
  9. ^ name=":18">David Kessler and Peter Temin, "Money and Prices in the Early Roman Empire," in The Monetary Systems of the Greeks and Romans, in The Monetary Systems of the Greeks and Romans (Oxford University Press, 2008), n.p.
  10. ^ 10.0 10.1 W.V. Harris英语William V. Harris, "The Nature of Roman Money," in The Monetary Systems of the Greeks and Romans, n.p.
  11. ^ Harl, Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700, p. 125–136.
  12. ^ Harl, Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700, pp. 128–129.
  13. ^ Harris, "The Nature of Roman Money," in The Monetary Systems of the Greeks and Romans, n.p.; Harl, Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700, pp. 128–129.
  14. ^ "Mining," in Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World p. 579.
  15. ^ Hong, Sungmin; Candelone, Jean-Pierre; Patterson, Clair C.; Boutron, Claude F. Greenland Ice Evidence of Hemispheric Lead Pollution Two Millennia Ago by Greek and Roman Civilizations. Science. 1994, 265 (5180): 1841–1843. Bibcode:1994Sci...265.1841H. PMID 17797222. doi:10.1126/science.265.5180.1841. 
  16. ^ Wilson, Andrew英语Andrew Wilson (classical archaeologist) (2002): "Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy", 罗马研究期刊英语Society_for_the_Promotion_of_Roman_Studies#Work_of_the_society, Vol. 92, pp. 1–32 (17–21, 25, 32)
  17. ^ Craddock, Paul T. (2008): "Mining and Metallurgy", in: Oleson, John Peter英语John Peter Oleson (ed.): The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-518731-1, p. 108; Sim, David; Ridge, Isabel (2002): Iron for the Eagles. The Iron Industry of Roman Britain, Tempus, Stroud, Gloucestershire, ISBN 0-7524-1900-5, p. 23; Healy, John F. (1978): Mining and Metallurgy in the Greek and Roman World, Thames and Hudson, London, ISBN 0-500-40035-0, p. 196. Assumes a productive capacity of c. 1.5 kg per capita. Healy, John F. (1978): Mining and Metallurgy in the Greek and Roman World, Thames and Hudson, London, ISBN 0-500-40035-0, p. 196
  18. ^ Hong, Sungmin; Candelone, Jean-Pierre; Patterson, Clair C.; Boutron, Claude F. (1996): "History of Ancient Copper Smelting Pollution During Roman and Medieval Times Recorded in Greenland Ice", Science, Vol. 272, No. 5259, pp. 246–249 (366–369); cf. also Wilson, Andrew (2002): "Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy", 罗马研究期刊英语Society_for_the_Promotion_of_Roman_Studies#Work_of_the_society, Vol. 92, pp. 1–32 (25–29)
  19. ^ Hong, Sungmin; Candelone, Jean-Pierre; Patterson, Clair C.; Boutron, Claude F. (1994): "Greenland Ice Evidence of Hemispheric Lead Pollution Two Millennia Ago by Greek and Roman Civilizations", Science, Vol. 265, No. 5180, pp. 1841–1843; Callataÿ, François de (2005): "The Graeco-Roman Economy in the Super Long-Run: Lead, Copper, and Shipwrecks", Journal of Roman Archaeology, Vol. 18, pp. 361–372 (361–365); Settle, Dorothy M.; Patterson, Clair C. (1980): "Lead in Albacore: Guide to Lead Pollution in Americans", Science, Vol. 207, No. 4436, pp. 1167–1176 (1170f.); cf. also Wilson, Andrew (2002): "Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy", 罗马研究期刊英语Society_for_the_Promotion_of_Roman_Studies#Work_of_the_society, Vol. 92, pp. 1–32 (25–29)
  20. ^ Callataÿ, François de (2005): "The Graeco-Roman Economy in the Super Long-Run: Lead, Copper, and Shipwrecks", Journal of Roman Archaeology, Vol. 18, pp. 361–372 (361–369); Hong, Sungmin; Candelone, Jean-Pierre; Patterson, Clair C.; Boutron, Claude F. (1996): "History of Ancient Copper Smelting Pollution During Roman and Medieval Times Recorded in Greenland Ice", Science, Vol. 272, No. 5259, pp. 246–249 (247, fig. 1 and 2; 248, table 1); Hong, Sungmin; Candelone, Jean-Pierre; Patterson, Clair C.; Boutron, Claude F. (1994): "Greenland Ice Evidence of Hemispheric Lead Pollution Two Millennia Ago by Greek and Roman Civilizations", Science, Vol. 265, No. 5180, pp. 1841–1843; Settle, Dorothy M.; Patterson, Clair C. (1980): "Lead in Albacore: Guide to Lead Pollution in Americans", Science, Vol. 207, No. 4436, pp. 1167–1176 (1170f.)
  21. ^ Hong, Sungmin; Candelone, Jean-Pierre; Patterson, Clair C.; Boutron, Claude F. Greenland Ice Evidence of Hemispheric Lead Pollution Two Millennia Ago by Greek and Roman Civilizations. Science. 1994, 265 (5180): 1841–1843. Bibcode:1994Sci...265.1841H. PMID 17797222. doi:10.1126/science.265.5180.1841. 
  22. ^ Patterson, C. C. (1972): "Silver Stocks and Losses in Ancient and Medieval Times", 经济史评论英语The Economic History Review, Vol. 25, No. 2, pp. 205–235 (228, table 6); Callataÿ, François de (2005): "The Graeco-Roman Economy in the Super Long-Run: Lead, Copper, and Shipwrecks", Journal of Roman Archaeology, Vol. 18, pp. 361–372 (365f.)
  23. ^ Patterson, C. C. (1972): "Silver Stocks and Losses in Ancient and Medieval Times", 经济史评论英语The Economic History Review, Vol. 25, No. 2, pp. 205–235 (216, table 2); Callataÿ, François de (2005): "The Graeco-Roman Economy in the Super Long-Run: Lead, Copper, and Shipwrecks", Journal of Roman Archaeology, Vol. 18, pp. 361–372 (365f.)
  24. ^ Hopkins, The Political Economy of the Roman Empire, p. 197.
  25. ^ Wilson 2002, pp. 17–21, 25, 32
  26. ^ Cech 2010, p. 20
  27. ^ Smith 1997, pp. 322–324
  28. ^ Craddock 2008, p. 108; Sim, Ridge 2002, p. 23; Healy 1978, p. 196
  29. ^ Sim, Ridge 2002, p. 23; Healy 1978, p. 196
  30. ^ World output, the large bulk of which is attributed to Roman mining and smelting activities (mainly in Spain, Cyprus and Central Europe): Hong, Candelone, Patterson, Boutron 1996, p. 247; Callataÿ 2005, pp. 366–369; cf. also Wilson 2002, pp. 25–29
  31. ^ Hong, Candelone, Patterson, Boutron 1996, p. 247, fig. 1 & 2; 248, table 1; Callataÿ 2005, pp. 366–369
  32. ^ World output, the large bulk of which is attributed to Roman silver mining and smelting activities (in Central Europe, Britain, the Balkans, Greece, Asia Minor and, above all, Spain, with a 40% share in world production alone): Hong, Candelone, Patterson, Boutron 1994, p. 1841–1843; Callataÿ 2005, pp. 361–365; Settle, Patterson 1980, pp. 1170f.; cf. also Wilson 2002, pp. 25–29
  33. ^ Hong, Candelone, Patterson, Boutron 1994, p. 1841–1843; Settle, Patterson 1980, pp. 1170f.; Callataÿ 2005, pp. 361–365 follows the aforementioned authors, but cautions that the Greco-Roman levels may have already been surpassed by the end of the Middle Ages (p. 365).
  34. ^ Patterson 1972, p. 228, table 6; Callataÿ 2005, pp. 365f.; cf. also Wilson 2002, pp. 25–29
  35. ^ Patterson 1972, p. 216, table 2; Callataÿ 2005, pp. 365f.
  36. ^ Pliny: Naturalis Historia, 33.21.78, in: Wilson 2002, p. 27

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