維基百科

無政府狀態

不存在具有公共強制力的政府或暴力執行機構的社會

無政府狀態（英語：anarchy，音譯安那其[1][2]）是指一個不存在權威或者政府的社會。這一詞也可以形容反對等級制度的社會和持這一立場的團體[3]。無政府狀態一詞的對應英語單詞anarchy最早出現於1539年[4] ，而anarchy一詞始於中世紀的拉丁語詞彙anarchia和希臘語詞彙anarchos，意為「無統治者」[4]。皮埃爾-約瑟夫·普魯東在他1840年的著作《什麼是所有權？》中第一次正式使用無政府狀態和無政府主義者指代與無政府主義相關的事物[5][6][7]，無政府主義是一種新的、擁護基於無國家社會中自由且自發聯合體的政治哲學及社會運動。無政府主義者尋求一種廢除所有強制性等級制度——特別是國家——的新制度，其中許多人主張建立基於直接民主和工人合作社的新制度[8][9]。

在日常的使用中，無政府狀態可以指縮減或廢除傳統形式的政府和制度後的新制度，也可以指一個沒有政府系統或中央統治的國家或其他有人居住的地方。無政府狀態主要由要求用自願組成的組織取代政府的個人無政府主義者所倡導，這些組織往往參照了自然界本身所具有的社區、封閉經濟、互相依賴（英語：interdependence）和個人主義等概念。儘管無政府狀態常被消極地用作混亂或社會崩潰的同義詞，但這並不同於無政府主義者所賦予無政府狀態，一個沒有等級制度的社會的含義[3]。蒲魯東曾在著作中寫道「自由原是秩序的母親，但不是她的女兒」[10][11]。

詞源

 
圓圈A是無政府主義的代表符號

英語中「anarchy」一詞源於中世紀拉丁語的「anarchia」一詞和希臘語的「anarchos」（意為「沒有統治者」）一詞，後者由否定性前綴「a-（英語：alpha privative）」和「archos」（意為「統治者」）兩部分組合而成，字面意義即為「沒有統治者」[4]。無政府主義的象徵之一的圓圈A由大寫字母「A」和大寫字母「O」組成，其中「A」代表眾多歐洲語言的「無政府主義」或「無政府狀態」的首個字母，西里爾字母和拉丁字母的相關用詞也有以A開頭的傾向。「O」則指秩序（order），合起來即表示皮埃爾-約瑟夫·普魯東曾在《什麼是所有權？》一書所寫的「社會在無政府狀態中尋求秩序[7]（法語：la société cherche l'ordre dans l'anarchie[5][6]）」。

1902年，馬君武翻譯了托馬斯·柯卡普（克喀伯）的《俄羅斯大風潮》一書，並在書中將「anarchy」一詞直譯為無政府[12]，《俄羅斯大風潮》也是最早用漢語介紹無政府主義思想的書籍之一[13][14]。

概述

人類學

參見：無首社會（英語：Acephalous society）和原始共產主義
 
狩獵採集者常被認為居住於無政府社會之中

儘管當今世界各地基本都存在階級制度或者國家制度，但人類學家已從考古學記錄中發現了許多平等的無國家社會，如狩獵採集社會[15][16]和閃邁人及皮亞羅亞人（英語：Piaroa）的園藝社會。其中又有許多社會可以被進一步認為是無政府社會，因為它們明確拒絕集中政治權力的想法[17][18]。

從進化的角度來看，秉持平等主義的人類狩獵採集社會是人類史上很特別的一段時間。與人類相比，人類的近親黑猩猩一直秉持完全不平等、由雄性首領（英語：Dominance hierarchy）主導的階級制度。由於黑猩猩的這套制度與人類狩獵採集社會的制度差距很大，古人類學家普遍認為，對被支配的抵抗推動了人類意識、語言、親屬關係和社會組織的發展[19][20][21]。

在《無政府主義人類學碎片（英語：Fragments of an Anarchist Anthropology）》一書中，無政府人類學家大衛·格雷伯試圖勾勒出知識分子在研究無政府主義的社會理論的凝聚力方面可以嘗試的研究領域，同時認為「這正是人類學特別能幫上忙的地方」[22]，因為人類學這一學科的主要內容即為觀察人類組織社會和社會活動的方方面面，研究、分析和編排世界各地的不同形式的社會和經濟結構，以及最重要的，向全世界展示其中最適合人類的社會組織形式[23]。

在《反國家社會（英語：Society Against the State）》[24]一書中，皮耶·克拉斯特對無國家社會進行了研究，在這些社會中，某些文化習俗和態度阻止了等級制度和國家的發展。科拉特雷斯在書中否定了國家是人類社會進化的自然結果這一觀點[25]。

在《逃避統治的藝術（英語：The Art of Not Being Governed）》一書中，詹姆士·斯科特對贊米亞進行了研究，贊米亞是指一大片位於東南亞山地且長期處於無國家狀態的地理區域。贊米亞的山地將其與低地的國家分離，製造了一片可供逃避者避難的避難區。斯科特在書中認為山人（英語：hill people）的特殊社會特徵和文化特徵是為了躲避低地國家的抓捕而發展出的，不應被視為被低地文明遺棄的野蠻遺蹟[26][27]。

彼得·利森（英語：Peter Leeson）研究了十八世紀的海盜、未開化的原始部落成員和加利福尼亞監獄黑幫的私人執法（英語：private law enforcement）機構後發現，這些團體採用了各不相同的私人執法方法，以滿足他們的具體需求並維持整個組織處於無政府狀態[28]。

無政府原始主義者基於人類學有關狩獵採集社會的研究對現代文明進行批判，同時指出人類的自我馴化[29]可能導致了疾病、勞動、不平等、戰爭和心理疾病的蔓延[30][31][32]。包括約翰·哲忍（英語：John Zerzan）在內的一批作家認為，人們對原始社會的刻板印象（如原始社會一定是暴力又茹毛飲血的社會）被用來為現代工業社會的價值觀辯護，同時導致個人進一步遠離更自然、更公平的社會[33][34]。

國際關係

主條目：無政府狀態 (國際關係)

在國際關係中，無政府狀態是指「沒有任何高於民族國家的、能夠仲裁爭端和執行國際法的權威機構」這一狀態[35][36][37]。

政治哲學

無政府主義

主條目：無政府主義

作為一種政治哲學，無政府主義主張建立在自願結社基礎上的自治社會。儘管一些作家將其擁護的自治社會更具體地定義為基於非等級制度的自由人聯合體制度的社會[38][39][40][41]，這些社會仍常被描述為無國家社會[42][43][44][45]。無政府主義認為國家制度對人民有害，本身沒有存在的必要[46][47]。雖然反對國家制度是無政府主義的核心，但它仍是判定某一思想是否屬於無政府主義的必要不充分條件[48][49][50]，這也是為什麼儘管無政府資本主義[51][52][53][54]和民族無政府主義[55][56][57][58]在自己的名字中帶有無政府主義但仍不被認為是無政府主義學派（英語：anarchist schools of thought）和無政府主義運動一部分、甚至被無政府主義者和學者認為是帶有欺騙性[59][60][61]或本身就是矛盾的術語的原因[62][63][64][65][66][67]。無政府主義要求在人們處理人際關係時儘可能地排除權威或具有等級制度的組織（英語：hierarchical organisation）（包括但不限於國家制度）的干預[39][68][69][70][71][72][73][74]。

無政府主義分為許多不同的類型和學派，儘管各類無政府主義學說的理論基礎紮根廣泛，遍布極端的個人主義至極端的集體主義之間[47]，但彼此之間並不都相互排斥[75]。總體來說，無政府主義常被劃分為個人無政府主義和社會無政府主義兩大類，或者其他類似這樣的二元劃分[76][77][78]。無政府主義常被認為是一種激進的左派或極左派運動[79][80][81]，許多無政府主義經濟學和無政府主義法律（英語：anarchist law）反映了其與共產主義、互助主義、工團主義一般對左翼和社會主義[82][83][84][85][86][87]政治做出了具體的闡釋——從反權威主義、反國家主義和自由意志主義角度進行的闡釋[88]，以這一角度進行闡釋的無政府主義的自由意志社會主義分支和社會主義政治經濟學相關理論包括集體無政府主義、自由市場無政府主義、綠色無政府主義和參與型經濟。在無政府主義內部，一些個人無政府主義者支持部分共產主義的理論，同時一些無政府共產主義者也支持部分個人主義[89][90]或利己無政府主義[91][92]的理論，個人無政府主義與社會無政府主義相較而言，前者更為強調個人自由和人類的理性本質，而後者則認為個人自由本質上與社會平等有關，因此更為強調組建社群和互助的重要性[93]。

與其他的社會運動一樣，無政府主義亦時而受人歡迎，時而遭到人們厭惡。在無政府主義中，群眾社會運動派一直由無政府共產主義和無政府工團主義領導，而個人無政府主義更多的是一種文學思想[94]，而社會無政府主義自19世紀末無政府共產主義取代集體無政府主義[95]成為無政府主義的主流思潮後才從個人無政府主義中分離而出[51][52][53][54]。儘管如此，個人無政府主義的確對各類無政府主義學派產生了影響[96]，許多個人無政府主義者亦參與了大型的無政府主義組織[97][98]。一些無政府主義者認同基於自衛（英語：self-defense）和非暴力的和平主義，他們被稱作無政府和平主義者[99][100]，同時另一些人則支持在通往無政府主義社會的道路上使用包括革命和行動宣傳在內的激進策略（英語：militant）[101]。

自19世紀90年代以來，「自由意志主義」一詞開始被用作「無政府主義」一詞的同義詞[102][103]，直到20世紀中期隨著右派自由意志主義和美國的古典自由主義者（英語：classical liberals in the United States）開始將自己描述為「自由意志主義者」後，「自由意志主義」和「無政府主義」兩詞才不再完全相同的混用。此後，古典自由個人主義和自由市場資本主義哲學開始被與無政府主義明確地區分開來[104][105][106]，前者被稱為「右派自由意志主義」[107]，而後者被稱為「左派自由意志主義（英語：left-libertarianism）」[107]、「自由意志社會主義」[108][109]或「社會自由意志主義」[107]。右派自由意志主義者又可進一步細分為無政府資本主義者、小政府主義者和自願主義者[104][105]。英語世界外[110][111][112][113]，「自由意志主義」一詞在使用中仍常用於指代無政府主義[114][115]、反資本主義[116]、自由意志社會主義[117][118][119]和社會無政府主義[120][121]。

伊曼努爾·康德

德國哲學家伊曼努爾·康德在其《從實用主義角度看人類學》一書中把無政府狀態視為由「沒有武力的法律和自由」組成的政體。在康德看來，無政府狀態並不是一個真正的公民國家，因為如果不使用武力來使其法律產生效力，那麼法律只是一種「空洞的建議」。康德認為一個國家在維持法律和自由的同時也必須要考慮武力手段，這種狀態被他稱為共和制[122][123]。康德認為可以將政府劃分為四種：

  1. 沒有武力的、法治且自由的政府（無政府狀態）
  2. 沒有自由的、武力且法治的政府（專制）
  3. 沒有自由和法律的、武力的政府（野蠻制）
  4. 有武力保證的、自由且法治的政府（共和制）

部分國家崩潰後的無政府狀態的例子

參見：失敗國家

英國內戰（1642年–1651年）

主條目：英國內戰
 
英國內戰發生時，歐洲大陸的許多地區在三十年戰爭中已經度過了超過20年的近無政府狀態

無政府狀態是普特尼辯論（英語：Putney Debates）上的一個議題：

托馬斯·雷恩巴勒（英語：Thomas Rainsborough）：「今天我會比之前更開放、更口無遮攔地與你們繼續交流。我希望我們都是心地善良的人，希望我們都能以正直的態度對待自己。如果我真的不信任你，我就不會用這種斷言。不過我確實認為我們現在討論的問題是一個不信任的問題，因為人們太容易把事情想得太簡單，而有些時候事情要複雜得多。就我而言，我認為你忘記了我演講中的一些內容，你不僅自己認為有些人認為政府永遠是不正確的，而且你討厭所有相信這些的人。而且，先生，就因為一個人認為人人都應有選舉權，你就說這會毀掉一切財產權——這是在忽略上帝的律法，因為在上帝的律法中已經規定了財產權；不然上帝為何說『汝不可行竊？』難道說，因為我是個窮人，所以我就必須受到壓迫，因為我在這個王國中沒有財產，我就必須承受這個王國的所有律法，無論他們對錯嗎？或者這樣說：假如有一個住在鄉鎮的，和他人一樣有三四塊莊園領地（天知道他們怎麼拿到這些土地的）的鄉紳，當要選舉議會的時候，他必然會成為議會代表；這時如果他看到一些在自己門口住的窮人，他就會去壓榨他們——我知道有大批這樣的窮人被轟出門外無家可歸，我非常清楚這些是那些富人做的，以讓這些窮人承受世界上最殘酷的暴政。所以我認為這個問題已經得到了充分地解答：上帝把這件事與他的這條律法規定在一起，即汝不可行竊。就我而言，我反對任何這種支持這種有人沒有選舉權的想法，至於你們自己，我只希望你們不要讓世界覺得我們是支持無政府狀態的。」
奧利弗·克倫威爾：「我只知道，善於讓步的人有著大智慧。不過，先生，這些條例並不像它們看起來那麼好。而且，沒人說你支持無政府狀態，只是這些條例很可能甚至一定會導致無政府狀態。因為如果你取消了財產限制，那麼就會導致除了呼吸的利益之外沒有任何利益的人在選舉中也有發言權，那麼哪裡還有什麼約束或限制？不過，我還是堅信我們不必如此針鋒相對。」[124]

隨著人們開始對英國內戰進行理論研究，無政府狀態開始從不同的政治角度得到更明確的定義：

  • 1651年，托馬斯·霍布斯在《利維坦》一書中將自然狀態描述為所有人對所有人的戰爭的狀態，人類在這種狀態下過著野蠻的生活：「美洲有許多地方的野蠻民族除開小家族以外並無其他政府，而小家族的協調又完全取決於自然欲望，他們今天還生活在我在上面所說的那種野蠻殘忍的狀態中」[125][126]。霍布斯在書中進一步指出自然狀態中的爭鬥主要是由三種原因導致——第一是競爭，第二是猜疑，第三是榮譽：「第一種原因使人為了求利、第二種原因使人為了求安全、第三種原因則使人為了求名譽而進行侵犯」[127]。霍布斯在書中進一步總結出了若干條自然律，其中第一條為：「每一個人只要有獲得和平的希望時，就應當力求和平；在不能得到和平時，他就可以尋求並利用戰爭的一切有利條件和助力」。在自然狀態中，「每一個人對每一種事物都具有權利，甚至對彼此的身體也是這樣」，因此，霍布斯的第二條自然律致力於讓人們能夠享受和平的好處：「在別人也願意這樣做的條件下，當一個人[……]認為必要時，會自願放棄這種對一切事物的權利；而在對他人的自由權方面滿足於相當於自己讓他人對自己所具有的自由權利」[128]。這也是社會契約的開始，霍布斯的第三條自然律即為「所定信約必須履行」，在此之上不履行社會契約就是不義的，任何不是不義的事物就是正義的。
  • 1656年，詹姆士·哈林頓在《大洋國（英語：The Commonwealth of Oceana）》一書中使用「無政府狀態」一詞描述人民用武力將政府強加在由單個人（君主專制）或由少數人（混合君主制）擁有一切土地所構成的經濟基礎上的情況。哈靈頓稱該詞與共和國一詞並不相同，後者是指土地所有權和治理權都由廣大民眾共享的狀態，哈林頓認為無政府狀態是一種暫時的狀態，是由政府形式和財產關係形式之間的均勢被破壞引起的[129]。

阿爾巴尼亞（1997年）

主條目：1997年阿爾巴尼亞內戰

1997年，阿爾巴尼亞由於金字塔式公司（英語：Pyramid schemes in Albania）倒閉造成的嚴重的資金損失而陷入了無政府狀態[130][131]。由於社會崩潰，全副武裝的犯罪分子橫行霸道。當時每個城市一般有3-4個黑幫，南部尤甚。當時的警察沒有足夠的資源來處理與黑幫有關的犯罪。

索馬利亞（1991年–2006年）

主條目：索馬利亞歷史 (1991–2006)（英語：History of Somalia (1991–2006)）
 
2006年時的索馬利亞地圖，標有該地區主要政權所控制的領土

1991年，索馬利亞爆發內戰，隨後索馬利亞的中央政府崩潰。在這種情況下，索馬利亞的居民開始重新採用地方的衝突解決方式，如採用世俗法、傳統法或伊斯蘭法進行判決，並規定可對所有判決提出上訴。該國原本的法律結構大概由歐陸法系、宗教法和習慣法（索馬利亞判官政治）三種法系構成[132]。

雖然索馬利亞的正規司法系統在穆罕默德·西亞德·巴雷政權倒台後幾乎被摧毀殆盡，但後來在不同的地區政府，如自治的邦特蘭和索馬利蘭地區政府的努力下在部分地區得以重建。除了地方政府外，索馬利亞過渡國家政府及之後的索馬利亞過渡聯邦政府也通過各種國際會議形成了新的臨時司法結構。儘管這些政權彼此之間存在著一些重大的政治分歧，但所有這些行政當局有著相似的法律結構，而這些結構大部分是以之前的的索馬利亞政府的司法系統為基礎。具體相似之處包括一個以沙里亞法或者其他宗教法優先的特許狀，不過在實踐上往往只在結婚、離婚、繼承和民事問題等事項使用宗教法。這一特許狀還保證了司法機關獨立，司法機構受司法委員會保護。此外還有一個包括初審法院、上訴法院和最高法院的三級司法系統，巴雷政權軍事政變上台前的生效的文職政府的法律在法律被修改之前也仍然有效[133]。

經濟學家亞歷克斯·塔巴羅克（英語：Alex Tabarrok）稱索馬利亞在其無國家時期為世界提供了一個「無政府主義理論的獨特測試」，同時稱其在某些方面接近大衛·佛利民和穆瑞·羅斯巴德等無政府資本主義者支持的理論[134]。但是無政府主義者和包括瓦特·布拉克在內的一些無政府資本主義者不認為索馬利亞是一個無政府主義社會[135][136]。

無政府主義運動

參見：各地區無政府主義運動列表（英語：List of anarchist movements by region）和無政府主義法律（英語：Anarchist law）

俄國內戰（1917年–1922年）

 
內斯托爾·伊萬諾維奇·馬赫諾在俄國內戰中領導著烏克蘭的無政府主義運動馬赫諾運動

1917年，俄國布爾什維克與君主主義者之間爆發了內戰。隨後，在烏克蘭境內出現了一支新勢力：由內斯托爾·伊萬諾維奇·馬赫諾領導的無政府主義部隊，烏克蘭革命起義軍。烏克蘭的無政府主義者同時組建了馬赫諾運動，一個致力於抵抗一切國家權威的無政府主義運動，無論這一權威是來自於一個資本主義國家還是一個共產主義國家[137][138]。這一運動最終被擊敗白軍的布爾什維克政權吞併。無政府主義理論家埃瑪·戈爾德曼將馬赫諾描述為領導農民革命運動的「一位非凡人物」[139]。

1918年間，烏克蘭的大部分地區被不受當地人民歡迎的同盟國的部隊控制。1918年3月，年輕的無政府主義者馬赫諾的部隊和他的無政府主義和游擊隊盟友戰勝了德國、奧地利和烏克蘭民族主義者（如西蒙·彼得留拉）和俄國白軍的部隊，繳獲了大量德國和奧匈帝國的武器。這些以少勝多的戰役奠定了馬赫諾軍事戰術方面的地位，他也因此被其崇拜者稱為「馬赫諾老爹」（Batko Makhno）[140]。

馬赫諾視布爾什維克為獨裁政權，同時表示反對「契卡……以及其他類似的強制性權威和紀律機構」，呼籲「言論、新聞、集會和工會等自由」[141]。布爾什維克指責馬赫諾在他們控制的地區強行建立正式政府，稱馬赫諾派使用強制徵兵，實施草率處決，並擁有兩支軍事和反情報部隊拉茲維德卡（Razvedka）和普羅季夫馬赫諾斯基事務委員會（Kommissiya Protivmakhnovskikh Del）（類似契卡和格烏）[142]。不過後世的史學家將這些說法視為欺詐性的宣傳[143]。

西班牙（1936年）

更多資訊：西班牙無政府主義（英語：Anarchism in Spain）

秉持法西斯主義的西班牙將軍弗朗西斯科·弗朗哥在1936年發動了一場軍事叛亂，試圖推翻人民陣線（當時的西班牙執政黨），隨後西班牙的無政府主義者、共產主義者和人民陣線的剩餘部分聯合起來對抗弗朗哥。在整個戰爭期間和戰爭結束後不久，許多西班牙工人階級公民生活在無政府主義社區中，其中許多社區在這一時期蓬勃發展。在德國和義大利的大力支持下，國民軍贏得了最終的勝利並建立了由弗朗西斯科·弗朗哥獨裁的西班牙政府，有效的終止了西班牙無政府主義的進一步發展[144]。

無治社區列表

無治社區

 
不受當地政府控制的丹麥社區克里斯蒂安尼亞自由城的入口
 
2020年6月8日，沒有警察的國會山自治區在西雅圖國會山社區成立

無政府主義社區

參見無政府主義社區列表以獲取更詳盡的列表。

無政府主義者參與了各種各樣的社區的建設。雖然只有少數無政府群眾社會是明確的由無政府主義革命產生的，無政府主義者仍建立了一系列的意識社區。

意識社區
群眾社會

參見

參考文獻

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  57. ^ Macklin, Graham D. Co-opting the Counter Culture: Troy Southgate and the National Revolutionary Faction. Patterns of Prejudice. September 2005, 39 (3): 301–326 [2021-08-07]. S2CID 144248307. doi:10.1080/00313220500198292. （原始內容存檔於2021-02-05）. 
  58. ^ Sykes, Alan. The Radical Right in Britain: Social Imperialism to the BNP (British History in Perspective). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. 2005. ISBN 978-0-333-59923-5. 
  59. ^ Sunshine, Spencer. Rebranding Fascism: National-Anarchists. The Public Eye. Winter 2008, 23 (4): 1, 12 [2009-11-12]. （原始內容存檔於2009-07-26）. 
  60. ^ Sanchez, Casey. 'National Anarchism': California racists claim they're Anarchists. Intelligence Report. Summer 2009 [2009-12-02]. （原始內容存檔於2016-02-24）. 
  61. ^ Lyons, Matthew N. Rising Above the Herd: Keith Preston's Authoritarian Anti-Statism. New Politics. Summer 2011, 7 (3) [2019-07-27]. （原始內容存檔於2019-07-27）. 
  62. ^ Funnell, Warwick (2007). "Accounting and the Virtues of Anarchy" （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）. Australasian Accounting, Business and Finance Journal. 1 (1) 18–27. doi:10.14453/aabfj.v1i1.2.
  63. ^ Robinson, Christine M. (2009). "The Continuing Significance of Class: Confronting Capitalism in an Anarchist Community". Working USA. 12 (3): 355–370. doi:10.1111/j.1743-4580.2009.00243.x.
  64. ^ El-Ojeili, Chamsy (2012). "Anarchism as the Contemporary Spirit of Anti-Capitalism? A Critical Survey of Recent Debates". Critical Sociology. 40 (3): 451–468. doi:10.1177/0896920512452023.
  65. ^ Williams, Dana (2012). "From Top to Bottom, a Thoroughly Stratified World: An Anarchist View of Inequality and Domination". Race, Gender & Class. 19 (3/4): 9–34.
    JSTOR 43497486
    .
  66. ^ White, Richard; Williams, Colin (2014). "Anarchist Economic Practices in a 'Capitalist' Society: Some Implications for Organisation and the Future of Work" （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）. Ephermera: Theory and Politics in Organization. 14 (4): 947–971. SSRN 2707308 （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）.
  67. ^ Casey, Gerard. Freedom's Progress?. Andrews UK Limited. 2018: 670. ISBN 978-1845409425. 
  68. ^ Murray Bookchin (1982). The Ecology of Freedom: The Emergence and Dissolution of Hierarchy. Palo Alto, California: Cheshire Books. p. 3. "My use of the word hierarchy in the subtitle of this work is meant to be provocative. There is a strong theoretical need to contrast hierarchy with the more widespread use of the words class and State; careless use of these terms can produce a dangerous simplification of social reality. To use the words hierarchy, class, and State interchangeably, as many social theorists do, is insidious and obscurantist. This practice, in the name of a "classless" or "libertarian" society, could easily conceal the existence of hierarchical relationships and a hierarchical sensibility, both of which-even in the absence of economic exploitation or political coercion-would serve to perpetuate unfreedom."
  69. ^ Paul McLaughlin (2007). Anarchism and Authority: A Philosophical Introduction to Classical Anarchism （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）. AshGate. p. 1. "Authority is defined in terms of the right to exercise social control (as explored in the "sociology of power") and the correlative duty to obey (as explored in the "philosophy of practical reason"). Anarchism is distinguished, philosophically, by its scepticism towards such moral relations – by its questioning of the claims made for such normative power – and, practically, by its challenge to those "authoritative" powers which cannot justify their claims and which are therefore deemed illegitimate or without moral foundation."
  70. ^ Emma Goldman. "What it Really Stands for Anarchy" in Anarchism and Other Essays. "Anarchism, then, really stands for the liberation of the human mind from the dominion of religion; the liberation of the human body from the dominion of property; liberation from the shackles and restraint of government. Anarchism stands for a social order based on the free grouping of individuals for the purpose of producing real social wealth; an order that will guarantee to every human being free access to the earth and full enjoyment of the necessities of life, according to individual desires, tastes, and inclinations."
  71. ^ Benjamin Tucker. Individual Liberty （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）. Individualist anarchist Benjamin Tucker defined anarchism as opposition to authority, as follows: "They found that they must turn either to the right or to the left, – follow either the path of Authority or the path of Liberty. Marx went one way; Warren and Proudhon the other. Thus were born State Socialism and Anarchism ... Authority, takes many shapes, but, broadly speaking, her enemies divide themselves into three classes: first, those who abhor her both as a means and as an end of progress, opposing her openly, avowedly, sincerely, consistently, universally; second, those who profess to believe in her as a means of progress, but who accept her only so far as they think she will subserve their own selfish interests, denying her and her blessings to the rest of the world; third, those who distrust her as a means of progress, believing in her only as an end to be obtained by first trampling upon, violating, and outraging her. These three phases of opposition to Liberty are met in almost every sphere of thought and human activity. representatives of the first are seen in the Catholic Church and the Russian autocracy; of the second, in the Protestant Church and the Manchester school of politics and political economy; of the third, in the atheism of Gambetta and the socialism of Karl Marx."
  72. ^ Ward, Colin. Anarchism as a Theory of Organization. 1966 [2010-03-01]. （原始內容存檔於25 March 2010）. 
  73. ^ Anarchist historian George Woodcock report of Mikhail Bakunin's anti-authoritarianism and shows opposition to both state and non-state forms of authority as follows: "All anarchists deny authority; many of them fight against it." (p. 9) ... Bakunin did not convert the League's central committee to his full program, but he did persuade them to accept a remarkably radical recommendation to the Berne Congress of September 1868, demanding economic equality and implicitly attacking authority in both Church and State."
  74. ^ Brown, L. Susan. Anarchism as a Political Philosophy of Existential Individualism: Implications for Feminism. The Politics of Individualism: Liberalism, Liberal Feminism and Anarchism. Black Rose Books Ltd. Publishing. 2002: 106. 
  75. ^ Sylvan, Richard. Anarchism. Goodwin, Robert E.; Pettit, Philip (編). A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy. Blackwell Publishing. 1995: 231. 
  76. ^ Ostergaard, Geoffrey. "Anarchism". The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought. Blackwell Publishing. p. 14.
  77. ^ Kropotkin, Peter. Anarchism: A Collection of Revolutionary Writings. Courier Dover Publications. 2002: 5. ISBN 0-486-41955-X. 
  78. ^ R.B. Fowler. The Anarchist Tradition of Political Thought. Western Political Quarterly (University of Utah). 1972, 25 (4): 738–52. JSTOR 446800. doi:10.2307/446800. 
  79. ^ Brooks, Frank H. The Individualist Anarchists: An Anthology of Liberty (1881–1908). Transaction Publishers. 1994: xi. ISBN 1-56000-132-1. 
  80. ^ Joseph Kahn. Anarchism, the Creed That Won't Stay Dead; The Spread of World Capitalism Resurrects a Long-Dormant Movement. The New York Times. 2000, (5 August). 
  81. ^ Colin Moynihan. Book Fair Unites Anarchists. In Spirit, Anyway. New York Times. 2007, (16 April). 
  82. ^ Osgood, Herbert L. (March 1889). "Scientific Anarchism". Political Science Quarterly. The Academy of Political Science. 4 (1): 1–36. doi:10.2307/2139424. JSTOR 2139424. "In anarchism we have the extreme antithesis of [state] socialism and [authoritarian] communism" (p. 1).
  83. ^ Guérin, Daniel (1970). Anarchism: From Theory to Practice. Monthly Review Press. p. 12. ISBN 9780853451280. "[A]narchism is really a synonym for socialism. The anarchist is primarily a socialist whose aim is to abolish the exploitation of man by man. Anarchism is only one of the streams of socialist thought, that stream whose main components are concern for liberty and haste to abolish the State."55-6. "In general anarchism is closer to socialism than liberalism. [...] Anarchism finds itself largely in the socialist camp, but it also has outriders in liberalism. It cannot be reduced to socialism, and is best seen as a separate and distinctive doctrine."
  84. ^ Jennings, Jeremy (1999). "Anarchism". In Eatwell, Roger; Wright, Anthony (eds.). Contemporary Political Ideologies (reprinted, 2nd ed.). London: A & C Black. ISBN 9780826451736. p. 147.
  85. ^ Walter, Nicholas (2002). About Anarchism. London: Freedom Press. p. 44. ISBN 9780900384905. "[A]narchism does derive from liberalism and socialism both historically and ideologically. [...] In a sense, anarchists always remain liberals and socialists, and whenever they reject what is good in either they betray anarchism itself. [...] We are liberals but more so, and socialists but more so."
  86. ^ Newman, Michael (2005). Socialism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 15. ISBN 9780192804310.
  87. ^ Morriss, Brian (2015). Anthropology, Ecology, and Anarchism: A Brian Morris Reader. Marshall, Peter (illustrated ed.). Oakland: PM Press. p. 64. ISBN 9781604860931. "The tendency of writers like David Pepper (1996) to create a dichotomy between socialism and anarchism is both conceptually and historically misleading."
  88. ^ Guérin, Daniel (1970). Anarchism: From Theory to Practice. Monthly Review Press. p. 70. ISBN 9780853451280. "The anarchists were unanimous in subjecting authoritarian socialism to a barrage of severe criticism. At the time when they made violent and satirical attacks there were not entirely well founded, for those to whom they were addressed were either primitive or 'vulgar' communists, whose thought had not yet been fertilized by Marxist humanism, or else, in the case of Marx and Engels themselves, were not as set on authority and state control as the anarchists made out."
  89. ^ Post-left anarcho-communist Bob Black after analysing insurrectionary anarcho-communist Luigi Galleani's view on anarcho-communism went as far as saying that "communism is the final fulfillment of individualism.... The apparent contradiction between individualism and communism rests on a misunderstanding of both.... Subjectivity is also objective: the individual really is subjective. It is nonsense to speak of 'emphatically prioritizing the social over the individual'.... You may as well speak of prioritizing the chicken over the egg. Anarchy is a 'method of individualization'. It aims to combine the greatest individual development with the greatest communal unity."Bob Black. Nightmares of Reason. （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
  90. ^ Max Baginski. "Stirner: The Ego and His Own" （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）. Mother Earth. Vol. 2. No. 3 May 1907. "Modern Communists are more individualistic than Stirner. To them, not merely religion, morality, family and State are spooks, but property also is no more than a spook, in whose name the individual is enslaved – and how enslaved!...Communism thus creates a basis for the liberty and Eigenheit of the individual. I am a Communist because I am an Individualist. Fully as heartily the Communists concur with Stirner when he puts the word take in place of demand – that leads to the dissolution of property, to expropriation. Individualism and Communism go hand in hand."
  91. ^ "This stance puts him squarely in the libertarian socialist tradition and, unsurprisingly, (Benjamin) Tucker referred to himself many times as a socialist and considered his philosophy to be "Anarchistic socialism." "An Anarchist FAQby Various Authors
  92. ^ "Because revolution is the fire of our will and a need of our solitary minds; it is an obligation of the libertarian aristocracy. To create new ethical values. To create new aesthetic values. To communalize material wealth. To individualize spiritual wealth." [1] （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）Renzo Novatore. Toward the Creative Nothing
  93. ^ Suissa, Judith (2001). "Anarchism, Utopias and Philosophy of Education". Journal of Philosophy of Education. 35 (4): 627–646. doi:10.1111/1467-9752.00249
  94. ^ Skirda, Alexandre. Facing the Enemy: A History of Anarchist Organization from Proudhon to May 1968. AK Press, 2002, p. 191.
  95. ^ McKay, Iain (編). An Anarchist FAQ I/II. Stirling: AK Press. 2012. ISBN 9781849351225. No, far from it. Most anarchists in the late nineteenth century recognised communist-anarchism as a genuine form of anarchism and it quickly replaced collectivist anarchism as the dominant tendency. So few anarchists found the individualist solution to the social question or the attempts of some of them to excommunicate social anarchism from the movement convincing. 
  96. ^ Catalan historian Xavier Diez reports that the Spanish individualist anarchist press was widely read by members of anarcho-communist groups and by members of the anarcho-syndicalist trade union CNT. There were also the cases of prominent individualist anarchists such as Federico Urales and Miguel Giménez Igualada who were members of the CNT and J. Elizalde who was a founding member and first secretary of the Iberian Anarchist Federation. Xavier Diez. El anarquismo individualista en España: 1923–1938. ISBN 978-84-96044-87-6
  97. ^ Within the synthesist anarchist organization, the Fédération Anarchiste, there existed an individualist anarchist tendency alongside anarcho-communist and anarchosyndicalist currents. Individualist anarchists participating inside the Fédération Anarchiste included Charles-Auguste Bontemps, Georges Vincey and André Arru. "Pensée et action des anarchistes en France : 1950–1970" by Cédric GUÉRIN
  98. ^ In Italy in 1945, during the Founding Congress of the Italian Anarchist Federation, there was a group of individualist anarchists led by Cesare Zaccaria who was an important anarchist of the time.Cesare Zaccaria (19 August 1897 – October 1961) by Pier Carlo Masini and Paul Sharkey （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
  99. ^ "Resiting the Nation State, the pacifist and anarchist tradition" by Geoffrey Ostergaard. Ppu.org.uk. 1945-08-06 [2010-09-20]. （原始內容存檔於2011-05-14）. 
  100. ^ George Woodcock. Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements (1962)
  101. ^ Fowler, R.B. "The Anarchist Tradition of Political Thought." The Western Political Quarterly, Vol. 25, No. 4. (1972-12), pp. 743–44.
  102. ^ Nettlau, Max. A Short History of Anarchism. Freedom Press. 1996: 162. ISBN 0-900384-89-1. 
  103. ^ Daniel Guérin. Anarchism: From Theory to Practice （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）. "At the end of the century in France, Sebastien Faure took up a word originated in 1858 by one Joseph Déjacque to make it the title of a journal, Le Libertaire. Today the terms 'anarchist' and 'libertarian' have become interchangeable."
  104. ^ 104.0 104.1 Marshall, Peter (1992). Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism. London: HarperCollins. pp. 564–565. ISBN 978-0-00-217855-6. "Anarcho-capitalists are against the State simply because they are capitalists first and foremost. [...] They are not concerned with the social consequences of capitalism for the weak, powerless and ignorant. [...] As such, anarcho-capitalism overlooks the egalitarian implications of traditional individualist anarchists like Spooner and Tucker. In fact, few anarchists would accept the 'anarcho-capitalists' into the anarchist camp since they do not share a concern for economic equality and social justice. Their self-interested, calculating market men would be incapable of practising voluntary co-operation and mutual aid. Anarcho-capitalists, even if they do reject the state, might therefore best be called right-wing libertarians rather than anarchists."
  105. ^ 105.0 105.1 Goodway, David (2006). Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow: Left-Libertarian Thought and British Writers from William Morris to Colin Ward. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. p. 4. "'Libertarian' and 'libertarianism' are frequently employed by anarchists as synonyms for 'anarchist' and 'anarchism', largely as an attempt to distance themselves from the negative connotations of 'anarchy' and its derivatives. The situation has been vastly complicated in recent decades with the rise of anarcho-capitalism, 'minimal statism' and an extreme right-wing laissez-faire philosophy advocated by such theorists as Rothbard and Nozick and their adoption of the words 'libertarian' and 'libertarianism'. It has therefore now become necessary to distinguish between their right libertarianism and the left libertarianism of the anarchist tradition."
  106. ^ Newman, Saul (2010). The Politics of Postanarchism. Edinburgh University Press. p. 43. "It is important to distinguish between anarchism and certain strands of right-wing libertarianism which at times go by the same name (for example, Rothbard's anarcho-capitalism)." ISBN 0748634959.
  107. ^ 107.0 107.1 107.2 Carlson, Jennifer D. (2012). "Libertarianism". In Miller, Wilburn R., ed. The Social History of Crime and Punishment in America. London: SAGE Publications. p. 1006 （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）. ISBN 1412988764.
  108. ^ Perlin, Terry M. Contemporary Anarchism. Transaction Publishers. 1979: 40. ISBN 0-87855-097-6. 
  109. ^ Noam Chomsky; Carlos Peregrín Otero. Language and Politics. AK Press. 2004: 739. ISBN 9781902593821. 
  110. ^ Marshall, Peter (1992). Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism. London: HarperCollins. p. 641. " "For a long time, libertarian was interchangeable in France with anarchist but in recent years, its meaning has become more ambivalent. [...] In general, anarchism is closer to socialism than liberalism. [...] Anarchism finds itself largely in the socialist camp, but it also has outriders in liberalism. It cannot be reduced to socialism, and is best seen as a separate and distinctive doctrine."
  111. ^ Bufe, Charles. The Heretic's Handbook of Quotations. See Sharp Press, 1992. p. iv.
  112. ^ Fernandez, Frank. Cuban Anarchism. The History of a Movement. See Sharp Press, 2001, p. 9.
  113. ^ Skirda, Alexandre. Facing the Enemy: A History of Anarchist Organization from Proudhon to May 1968. AK Press 2002. p. 183.
  114. ^ MacDonald, Dwight & Wreszin, Michael. Interviews with Dwight Macdonald. University Press of Mississippi, 2003. p. 82.
  115. ^ Woodcock, George. Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements. Broadview Press, 2004. Uses the terms interchangeably such as on p. 10.
  116. ^ Ward, Colin. Anarchism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press 2004 p. 62.
  117. ^ Chomsky, Noam (2005). Pateman, Barry (ed.). Chomsky on Anarchism. AK Press. p. 123. "[Anarchism is] the libertarian wing of socialism."
  118. ^ Goodway, David. Anarchists Seed Beneath the Snow. Liverpool Press. 2006, p. 4.
  119. ^ Gay, Kathlyn. Encyclopedia of Political Anarchy. ABC-CLIO / University of Michigan, 2006, p. 126.
  120. ^ Cohn, Jesse (20 April 2009). "Anarchism". In Ness, Immanuel (ed.). The International Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 4–6. "[F]rom the 1890s on, the term 'libertarian socialism' has entered common use as a synonym for anarchism. [...] 'libertarianism' [...] a term that, until the mid-twentieth century, was synonymous with 'anarchism' per se."
  121. ^ Levy, Carl; Adams, Matthew S., eds. (2018). The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 104. "As such, many people use the term 'anarchism' to describe the anti-authoritarian wing of the socialist movement."
  122. ^ Kant, Immanuel (1798). "Grundzüge der Schilderung des Charakters der Menschengattung" （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）. In Anthropologie in pragmatischer Hinsicht. AA: VII, s.330.
  123. ^ Louden, Robert B., ed. (2006). Kant: Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View. Cambridge University Press. p. 235.
  124. ^ The Putney Debates, The Forum at the Online Library of Liberty. [2021-08-10]. （原始內容存檔於2021-03-22）.  Source: Sir William Clarke, Puritanism and Liberty, being the Army Debates (1647–9) from the Clarke Manuscripts with Supplementary Documents, selected and edited with an Introduction A.S.P. Woodhouse, foreword by A.D. Lindsay (University of Chicago Press, 1951).
  125. ^ 霍布斯, 托馬斯. 利维坦. 由黎思復; 黎廷弼翻譯 1. 北京: 商務印書館. : 95 [2021-08-10]. ISBN 978-7-100-01751-0. （原始內容存檔於2021-08-10） （中文（中國大陸））. 
  126. ^ Chapter XIII. Oregonstate.edu. [2012-01-30]. （原始內容存檔於2010-05-28）. 
  127. ^ 霍布斯, 托馬斯. 利维坦. 由黎思復; 黎廷弼翻譯 1. 北京: 商務印書館. : 94 [2021-08-10]. ISBN 978-7-100-01751-0. （原始內容存檔於2021-08-10） （中文（中國大陸））. 
  128. ^ 霍布斯, 托馬斯. 利维坦. 由黎思復; 黎廷弼翻譯 1. 北京: 商務印書館. : 98 [2021-08-10]. ISBN 978-7-100-01751-0. （原始內容存檔於2021-08-10） （中文（中國大陸））. 
  129. ^ 哈林頓, 詹姆士. 大洋国. 由何新翻譯 2. 北京: 商務印書館. 1981: 11 [2021-11-19]. ISBN 978-7-100-07985-3. （原始內容存檔於2021-11-19） （中文）. 
  130. ^ Pike, John. Albanian Civil War (1997). Global Security. [2021-08-11]. （原始內容存檔於2020-03-02）. These riots, and the state of anarchy which they caused, are known as the Albanian civil war of 1997 
  131. ^ D. Rai*c. Statehood and the Law of Self-Determination. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. 2002-09-25: 69 [2021-08-11]. ISBN 90-411-1890-X. （原始內容存檔於2021-08-10）. An example of a situation which features aspects of anarchy rather than civil war is the case of Albania after the outbreak of chaos in 1997. 
  132. ^ Central Intelligence Agency. Somalia. The World Factbook. Langley, Virginia: Central Intelligence Agency. 2011 [2011-10-05]. （原始內容存檔於2021-07-08）. 
  133. ^ Le Sage, Andre. Stateless Justice in Somalia (PDF). Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue. 2005-06-01 [2009-06-26]. （原始內容 (PDF)存檔於2012-01-18）. 
  134. ^ Tabarrok, Alex. Somalia and the theory of anarchy. Marginal Revolution. 2004-04-21 [2008-01-13]. （原始內容存檔於2021-12-31）. 
  135. ^ Knight, Alex R., III. The Truth About Somalia And Anarchy. Center for a Stateless Society. 2009-10-07 [2016-12-24]. （原始內容存檔於2017-12-15）. 
  136. ^ Block, Walter. Review Essay (PDF). The Quarterly Journal of Austrian Economics. Fall 1999, 2 (3) [2010-01-28]. （原始內容存檔 (PDF)於2014-06-30）. But if we define anarchy as places without governments, and we define governments as the agencies with a legal right to impose violence on their subjects, then whatever else occurred in Haiti, Sudan, and Somalia, it wasn't anarchy. For there were well-organized gangs (e.g., governments) in each of these places, demanding tribute, and fighting others who made similar impositions. Absence of government means absence of government, whether well established ones, or fly-by-nights. 
  137. ^ Yekelchyk 2007, p 80.
  138. ^ Charles Townshend; John Bourne; Jeremy Black. The Oxford Illustrated History of Modern War. Oxford University Press. 1997. ISBN 0-19-820427-2. 
  139. ^ Emma Goldman. My Disillusionment in Russia. Courier Dover Publications. 2003: 61. ISBN 0-486-43270-X. 
  140. ^ Edward R. Kantowicz. The Rage of Nations. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. 1999: 173. ISBN 0-8028-4455-3. 
  141. ^ Declaration Of The Revolutionary Insurgent Army Of The Ukraine (Makhnovist) （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）. Peter Arshinov, History of the Makhnovist Movement (1918–1921), 1923. （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館） Black & Red, 1974
  142. ^ Footman, David. Civil War In Russia Frederick A.Praeger 1961, p287
  143. ^ Guerin, Daniel. Anarchism: Theory and Practice
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  145. ^ Milani, Giuseppe; Selvi, Giovanna. Tra Rio e Riascolo: piccola storia del territorio libero di Cospaia. Lama di San Giustino: Associazione genitori oggi. 1996: 18. OCLC 848645655. 
  146. ^ Earle, Peter C. Anarchy in the Aachen. Mises Institute. 2012-08-04 [2017-09-07]. （原始內容存檔於2019-12-11）. 
  147. ^ 魔幻拉美》出版或死亡：揭露真相的代價. 自由時報電子報. 2016-03-08 [2021-11-24]. （原始內容存檔於2021-11-24）. 
  148. ^ 给曼德拉写信的人： 南非棚户区居民运动. 澎拜新聞. [2021-11-24]. （原始內容存檔於2021-11-24）. 
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外部連結

 
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