乙醯胺酚
乙醯胺酚(英語:Acetaminophen、Paracetamol、簡稱:APAP),又稱乙醯胺酚[12]、撲熱息痛,是一種常見的非阿片類鎮痛、退燒藥,主要用於退燒和緩解輕中度疼痛。[13][14][15] 作為一種非處方藥,它在全球範圍內廣泛應用,常見品牌包括泰諾(Tylenol)和普拿疼(Panadol)。
臨床資料 | |||
---|---|---|---|
讀音 | Paracetamol: /ˌpærəˈsitəmɒl/ Acetaminophen: i/əˌsiːtəˈmɪnəfɪn/ | ||
商品名 | 泰諾,及其他[1][2] | ||
其他名稱 | N-acetyl-para-aminophenol (APAP) | ||
AHFS/Drugs.com | Monograph | ||
MedlinePlus | a681004 | ||
核准狀況 |
| ||
懷孕分級 |
| ||
給藥途徑 | 口服給藥、頰部給藥、直腸塞劑、靜脈注射 | ||
ATC碼 | |||
法律規範狀態 | |||
法律規範 | |||
藥物動力學數據 | |||
生物利用度 | 63–89%[3]:73 | ||
血漿蛋白結合率 | 10–25%[4] | ||
藥物代謝 | 大部分經肝臟代謝[7] | ||
代謝產物 | APAP gluc、APAP sulfate、APAP GSH、APAP cys、NAPQI[5] | ||
藥效起始時間 | 視給藥途徑而定: 口服:37 分鐘[6] 頰部:15分鐘[6] 靜脈注射:8分鐘[6] | ||
生物半衰期 | 1–4 小時[7] | ||
排泄途徑 | 尿(85–90%)[7] | ||
識別資訊 | |||
| |||
CAS號 | 103-90-2 | ||
PubChem CID | |||
IUPHAR/BPS | |||
DrugBank | |||
ChemSpider | |||
UNII | |||
KEGG | |||
ChEBI | |||
ChEMBL | |||
PDB配體ID | |||
CompTox Dashboard (EPA) | |||
ECHA InfoCard | 100.002.870 | ||
化學資訊 | |||
化學式 | C8H9NO2 | ||
摩爾質量 | 151.163 g/mol | ||
3D模型(JSmol) | |||
密度 | 1.263 g/cm3 | ||
熔點 | 169 °C(336 °F) [9][10] | ||
沸點 | 420 °C(788 °F) | ||
水溶性 | 7.21 g/kg (0 °C)[11] 8.21 g/kg (5 °C)[11] | ||
| |||
|
在常規劑量下,乙醯胺酚具有一定的退熱效果,[14][16][17] 但其效力不如布洛芬。[18] 尤其對於病毒性發燒,其臨床療效和應用價值尚存爭議。[14][19][20] 在治療急性輕度偏頭痛和間歇性緊縮型頭痛方面,乙醯胺酚表現良好。[21][22] 臨床研究表明,與阿斯匹靈和咖啡因聯用時,能更有效地緩解這類輕度頭痛,因此被推薦為首選藥物方案。[23][24] 在術後疼痛管理中,雖然乙醯胺酚有一定效果,但不及布洛芬明顯。[25] 不過,兩者聯合使用時,止痛效果更優於單獨使用任一藥物。對於骨關節炎導致的疼痛,該藥的緩解作用較為有限,臨床價值不高。[15][26][27] 此外,在治療下背痛、癌痛和神經性疼痛方面,目前缺乏足夠的證據支持其廣泛應用。[15][26][28][29][30][31]
在規範使用的情況下,乙醯胺酚的短期安全性較高,[32] 不良反應發生率與布洛芬相當。而在長期使用方面,其安全性優於非類固醇抗發炎藥(NSAID)。[33] 對於對NSAID(如布洛芬)敏感的患者,這種藥物常是較好的選擇。[34][35] 但需要注意,長期服用可能導致血紅蛋白下降(暗示存在胃腸道出血的風險)[36] 及肝功能異常。成人每日最大安全劑量為3至4克,[26][37] 超過此劑量可能引發肝毒性,嚴重時可導致肝功能衰竭。[8] 在歐美國家,乙醯胺酚中毒已成為急性肝衰竭的主要原因,同時也是美國、英國、澳大利亞和紐西蘭最常見的藥物過量事件。[38][39][40]
關於這種藥物的起源,有記載稱其最早由查爾斯·弗雷德里克·格哈特(Charles Frédéric Gerhardt)於1852年合成,也有說法認為哈蒙·諾思羅普·莫爾斯(Harmon Northrop Morse)於1878年首次製備了這種化合物。[41][42][43] 如今,乙醯胺酚已成為歐美地區使用最廣泛的鎮痛退熱藥,[44] 並被列入世界衛生組織的基本藥物目錄。[45] 除泰諾、普拿疼等品牌外,市面上還有多種仿製藥可供選擇。[46] 據統計,僅在2022年,美國開出了超過500萬張乙醯胺酚處方,使其位列該國最常開具處方藥物的第114位。[47][48]
醫療用途
退燒
乙醯胺酚是一種常用的退燒藥。[13] 然而,有關其退熱效果的研究並不充分,尤其是在成人中的應用效果仍不明確。[14] 有醫學專家指出,可能存在對這種藥物的退熱用途過度處方的情況。[14] 臨床研究顯示,乙醯胺酚在緩解普通感冒症狀方面雖對鼻塞和流鼻涕有所幫助,但對喉嚨痛、全身不適、打噴嚏和咳嗽等症狀的效果較為有限。[49]
在重症監護中,與其他干預手段相比,乙醯胺酚僅能使體溫降低約0.2-0.3°C,且未能降低患者的死亡率。[16] 對於發燒的腦卒中患者,該藥物的效果也並不顯著。[50] 在膿毒症的治療中,研究結果不一:部分研究表明可能增加死亡率,另一些研究則顯示降低死亡率,甚至也有研究認為其對死亡率無影響。[16] 在登革熱的治療中,乙醯胺酚不僅未顯現顯著療效,反而增加了肝酶升高的風險,這可能預示對肝臟有損害。[51] 因此,目前不建議常規使用乙醯胺酚等退燒藥來處理髮熱伴感染的住院患者。[20]
在兒科領域,乙醯胺酚的退熱效果尚待明確。[52] 醫生建議,不應單純為了退燒而使用該藥,但對於發燒並伴有明顯不適的兒童可以酌情使用。[53] 需要注意的是,該藥物無法預防熱性痙攣。[53][54] 在標準劑量下,僅能使體溫下降約0.2°C,在急診場景下作用較小。[14] 因此,部分醫生建議適當增加劑量,以期達到0.7°C的降溫效果。[17] 研究還表明,在兒童退燒方面,乙醯胺酚效果稍遜於布洛芬,[55] 這一差異在兩歲以下兒童中同樣存在,[56] 但兩種藥物的安全性相當,它們對氣喘加重的風險也相似。[18] 醫生建議五歲以下兒童避免同時服用這兩種藥物,但在必要時可以交替使用。[53]
止痛
乙醯胺酚主要用於緩解輕至中度疼痛,適用於頭痛、肌肉酸痛、輕度關節炎疼痛、牙痛,以及因感冒、流感、扭傷和痛經引發的疼痛。[57] 當前研究支持其在急性輕中度疼痛中的應用,但對於慢性疼痛的療效尚缺乏足夠證據。[15]
肌肉骨骼疼痛
在骨關節炎和背痛等肌肉骨骼疼痛的治療中,乙醯胺酚的療效存在不確定性。[15]
研究顯示,該藥物對骨關節炎患者的幫助有限,臨床效果並不顯著。[15][26] 美國風濕病學會和關節炎基金會的治療指南指出,臨床試驗數據表明乙醯胺酚的療效非常有限,對大多數患者幫助不大。[27] 然而,對於無法使用非類固醇抗發炎藥的患者,指南仍建議可以短期或間歇性地使用乙醯胺酚,並強調長期服用者需定期檢查肝功能。[27] 歐洲抗風濕病聯盟(EULAR)也對手部骨關節炎提出了類似建議。[58] 歐洲骨關節炎協會(ESCEO)則在其膝關節炎治療方案中明確指出,乙醯胺酚僅適合用於短期的急性止痛。[59]
對於急性下背痛,乙醯胺酚的止痛效果有限。[15][28] 對於慢性背痛或放射性背痛,由於缺乏充分的隨機臨床試驗支持,尚不能確定其療效。[29][26][28]
頭痛
在急性偏頭痛的治療中,乙醯胺酚表現出較好的效果[21]:服藥一小時後,約39%的患者疼痛得到緩解,而安慰劑組僅有20%見效。[60] 值得一提的是,阿斯匹靈/乙醯胺酚/咖啡因的複方製劑效果更為顯著,已被證實可作為偏頭痛的一線用藥。[23]
對於頻繁發作的緊縮型頭痛,單獨使用乙醯胺酚的效果相對有限。[22] 然而,上述三聯複方製劑效果明顯優於單一用藥和安慰劑:用藥兩小時後,29%的患者完全無痛,而單獨使用乙醯胺酚的患者中僅21%達到這一效果,安慰劑組更低,只有18%。[61] 德、奧、瑞三國的頭痛協會和德國神經病學會將這一複方製劑列為緊張性頭痛自我治療的首選推薦,其中乙醯胺酚/咖啡因組合被列為首選,單純乙醯胺酚則作為備選方案。[24]
牙科及術後止痛
牙科手術後的疼痛常被用作評估止痛藥效果的標準模型。[62] 研究顯示,在此類疼痛的治療中,布洛芬的效果優於乙醯胺酚。標準劑量的非類固醇抗發炎藥(如布洛芬、萘普生或雙氯芬酸)在止痛效果上明顯優於常用的乙醯胺酚/可待因複方製劑。[63] 而乙醯胺酚與布洛芬或雙氯芬酸的聯合使用效果更好,可能優於單獨使用其中任一種藥物。[25][64][65][66] 此外,乙醯胺酚/布洛芬組合效果或優於乙醯胺酚/可待因或布洛芬/可待因組合。[64]
一項涵蓋牙科手術在內的術後疼痛研究顯示,乙醯胺酚/可待因複方製劑效果顯著優於單獨使用乙醯胺酚:該複方製劑可為53%的患者提供明顯的止痛效果,而安慰劑組僅有7%有效。[67]
其他類型疼痛
在新生兒操作性疼痛的緩解方面,乙醯胺酚效果不佳。[68][69] 對於產後會陰部疼痛,非類固醇抗發炎藥的效果顯著優於乙醯胺酚。[70]
目前,乙醯胺酚在癌痛和神經病理性疼痛治療中的應用研究尚不足。[30][31] 在急診科,靜脈注射乙醯胺酚用於急性疼痛控制的效果有一定證據支持,但數據仍較有限。[71] 研究顯示,乙醯胺酚與咖啡因的複方製劑在急性疼痛的治療中效果優於單獨使用乙醯胺酚。[72]
不良反應
過量服用
普遍認為正常劑量服用乙醯胺酚非常安全,無論對於幼兒還是成人。但是長期、過量服用乙醯胺酚可能造成不良後果。服用超過7.5 g/日或150 mg/kg(體重) 可能導致肝臟損害。患有肝臟疾病的患者服用乙醯胺酚應諮詢醫師。身體健康者服藥期間也應避免飲酒。另有證據顯示乙醯胺酚可能存在輕微的腎毒性,長期大劑量服用可能導致腎臟損害,故建議腎病患者服用含乙醯胺酚的藥品應格外注意。
含乙醯胺酚的藥品
許多非處方藥中都含有乙醯胺酚成分,這情況在世界各地都很普遍,因為一般西醫診所的醫生都會為病人處方多種藥物,並且很難從藥品名稱中得知其含有乙醯胺酚。所以用量應計算所有服用的藥品中的乙醯胺酚的用量,以免因為重覆服藥而出現藥物中毒。[73]
作用機制
至今,乙醯胺酚的作用機制還未完全明瞭。主要的作用機制應該是對環氧化酶的抑制作用,近期的研究發現其對COX-2的選擇性更強。[74]因為其對COX-2具有選擇性,所以乙醯胺酚不會抑制血栓形成。[74]乙醯胺酚有止痛和退燒作用,這與阿斯匹靈等其他NSAID無異,但是乙醯胺酚的外周抗發炎作用受到多種因素的制約,其中之一便是炎性病變中的過氧化物。然而,在某些情況下,可以觀察其外周抗發炎活性幾乎與NSAID相同。
與非類固醇抗發炎藥物相似,但是與鴉片類藥物不同,對乙醯胺基酚不會使人精神愉快或是改變心情。對乙醯胺基酚和NSAID類藥物不會有令人上癮和產生依賴性的危險。對乙醯胺基酚的分子無對掌性,所以不會有旋光性。對乙醯胺基酚的兩個英文名字都來自於他的化學名稱「N-acetyl-para-aminophenol」(N-乙醯-對-胺基苯酚)和「para-acetyl-amino-phenol」(對乙醯胺基酚)。在某些文獻中,對乙醯胺基酚被簡記作「APAP」。
歷史
中世紀時期,僅有的退熱藥物是一種存在於柳樹樹皮中的物質(一類叫作水楊酸的物質,後來導致了阿斯匹靈的發展)和一種存在於金雞納樹樹皮裡的物質。金雞納樹皮也是用來製造抗瘧疾藥物奎寧的主要原料,奎寧本身也有退熱的功效。直到19世紀中後期才發展出提煉分離水楊苷和水楊酸的技術。
1880年代以來,隨著金雞納樹日益減少,人們開始尋找其替代品。1886年科學家發明了退熱冰(乙醯苯胺),1887年又發明了非那西丁(乙醯對氨苯乙醚)。1873年,哈蒙·莫斯(Harmon Morse)首先通過對硝基苯酚和冰醋酸的在錫催化下反應合成了乙醯胺酚,但是在二十年之內乙醯胺酚並沒有用於醫學用途。1893年,在某些服用了非那西丁的患者的尿液里發現了乙醯胺酚的存在,並濃縮成白色、稍有苦味的晶體。1899年乙醯胺酚被發現是退熱冰的代謝產物,但是這些發現在當時並沒有被重視。
1946年美國止痛與鎮靜劑研究所撥款給紐約市衛生局 (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)研究止痛劑的問題。伯納德·布羅迪和朱利葉斯·阿克塞爾羅德被分配研究非阿斯匹靈類退熱劑為何產生高鐵血紅蛋白症(一種非致命的血液疾病)這一副作用。1948年伯納德和愛梭羅德發現退熱冰的作用歸功於他的代謝產物乙醯胺酚,因此他們提倡使用乙醯胺酚替代退熱冰,因為乙醯胺酚沒有類似退熱冰的毒副作用。
1955年, 嬌生公司的乙醯胺酚藥片在美國境內上市銷售,商品名為泰諾。
1956年,葛蘭素史克公司500毫克一片的乙醯胺酚藥片在英國境內上市銷售,商品名普拿疼(英語:Panadol)。1963年,乙醯胺酚列入英國藥典,並因其較小的副作用和與其它藥物的相互作用而流行開來。
獸醫用途
貓
乙醯胺酚對貓有劇毒性。因為貓缺乏分解乙醯胺酚所必要的UGA1酶。初期症狀包括嘔吐、流口水、呼吸急促以及舌頭與口腔變色。 與人類的乙醯胺酚中毒機理不同,肝損傷並不是主要死因。而是因為高鐵血紅蛋白的形成和其紅血球內大量產生海因茲小體,阻礙了血的運氧功能,進而導致窒息(或稱正鐵血紅蛋白血症或溶血性貧血)。[75]
給予乙醯半胱胺酸[76]、亞甲藍或兩者合併有時候可以對少量的乙醯胺酚誤食有效。
狗
雖然獸醫界普遍認為乙醯胺酚沒有明顯的消炎藥效,臨床顯示其對於舒緩狗的肌肉骨骼痛比阿斯匹靈有效。[77] 一種乙醯胺酚-可待因產品(商品名Pardale-V)[78]在市面上有販售,並允許在獸醫、藥師或其他通過認證的專家指示下作為獸用藥。[78]惟該種藥應該在獸醫指示和極端審慎下對狗施用。[78] 乙醯胺酚對狗的主要毒性是肝損傷,另外也有消化道潰瘍的案例。[76][79][80]在誤食乙醯胺酚的兩小時內給予乙醯半胱胺酸是很有效的解毒手法。[76][77]
蛇
乙醯胺酚對蛇是致命的,而且在關島是對棕樹蛇(Boiga irregularis)的一種化學控制手段。[81][82]具體施用方法為將80 mg的乙醯胺酚注入到死老鼠內作為毒餌,然後用直升機散佈。[83]
參考文獻
- ^ International Listings for Paracetamol. [11 January 2016]. (原始內容存檔於2016-01-06).
- ^ Hamilton, Richard J. Tarascon pocket pharmacopoeia : 2013 classic shirt-pocket edition 27th. Burlington, Massachusetts: Jones & Bartlett Learning. 2013: 12 [2018-02-19]. ISBN 9781449665869. (原始內容存檔於2020-12-25).
- ^ Working Group of the Australian and New Zealand College of Anaesthetists and Faculty of Pain Medicine. Macintyre, PE; Schug, SA; Scott, DA; Visser, EJ; Walker, SM , 編. Acute Pain Management: Scientific Evidence (PDF) 3rd. Melbourne, Australia: National Health and Medical Research Council. 2010 [2018-02-19]. ISBN 9780977517459. (原始內容 (PDF)存檔於2012-10-21).
- ^ Tylenol, Tylenol Infants' Drops (acetaminophen) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more. Medscape Reference. WebMD. [10 May 2014]. (原始內容存檔於2014-04-14).
- ^ Acetaminophen Pathway (therapeutic doses), Pharmacokinetics. [13 January 2016]. (原始內容存檔於2016-03-04).
- ^ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Pickering, Gisèle; Macian, Nicolas; Libert, Frédéric; Cardot, J. Michel; Coissard, Séverine; Perovitch, Philippe; Maury, Marc; Dubray, Claude. Buccal acetaminophen provides fast analgesia: two randomized clinical trials in healthy volunteers. Drug Design, Development and Therapy. 2014, 8: 1621–1627 [2020-10-24]. ISSN 1177-8881. PMC 4189711 . PMID 25302017. doi:10.2147/DDDT.S63476. (原始內容存檔於2020-12-21).
bAPAP has a faster time of antinociception onset (15 minutes, P<0.01) and greater antinociception at 50 minutes (P<0.01, CT1) and 30 minutes (P<0.01, CT2) than ivAPAP and sAPAP. All routes are similar after 50 minutes. ... In postoperative conditions for acute pain of mild to moderate intensity, the quickest reported time to onset of analgesia with APAP is 8 minutes9 for the iv route and 37 minutes6 for the oral route.
- ^ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Codapane Forte Paracetamol and codeine phosphate PRODUCT INFORMATION (PDF). TGA eBusiness Services. Alphapharm Pty Limited. 29 April 2013 [10 May 2014]. (原始內容存檔於2016-02-06).
- ^ 8.0 8.1 Acetaminophen. The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists. [16 September 2016]. (原始內容存檔於5 June 2016).
- ^ Karthikeyan, M.; Glen, Robert C.; Bender, Andreas. General melting point prediction based on a diverse compound data set and artificial neural networks. Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling. 2005-05, 45 (3): 581–590 [2020-10-24]. ISSN 1549-9596. PMID 15921448. doi:10.1021/ci0500132. (原始內容存檔於2020-12-25).
- ^ melting point data for paracetamol. Lxsrv7.oru.edu. [19 March 2011]. (原始內容存檔於2012-06-30).
- ^ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 Granberg, Roger A.; Rasmuson, Åke C. Solubility of Paracetamol in Pure Solvents. Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data. 1999-11, 44 (6): 1391–1395 [2020-10-24]. ISSN 0021-9568. doi:10.1021/je990124v. (原始內容存檔於2020-10-26) (英語).
- ^ 食品藥物管理署. 止痛藥品(acetaminophen,乙醯胺酚成分)之用藥安全資訊說明. 衛生福利部. 2014-02-06 [2021-12-13]. (原始內容存檔於2022-06-17).
- ^ 13.0 13.1 Prescott LF. Paracetamol: past, present, and future. American Journal of Therapeutics. March 2000, 7 (2): 143–147. PMID 11319582. S2CID 7754908. doi:10.1097/00045391-200007020-00011.
- ^ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 Warwick C. Paracetamol and fever management. J R Soc Promot Health. November 2008, 128 (6): 320–323. PMID 19058473. S2CID 25702228. doi:10.1177/1466424008092794.
- ^ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 Saragiotto BT, Abdel Shaheed C, Maher CG. Paracetamol for pain in adults. BMJ. December 2019, 367: l6693. PMID 31892511. S2CID 209524643. doi:10.1136/bmj.l6693.
- ^ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Chiumello D, Gotti M, Vergani G. Paracetamol in fever in critically ill patients-an update. J Crit Care. April 2017, 38: 245–252. PMID 27992852. S2CID 5815020. doi:10.1016/j.jcrc.2016.10.021.
- ^ 17.0 17.1 de Martino M, Chiarugi A. Recent Advances in Pediatric Use of Oral Paracetamol in Fever and Pain Management. Pain Ther. December 2015, 4 (2): 149–68. PMC 4676765 . PMID 26518691. doi:10.1007/s40122-015-0040-z.
- ^ 18.0 18.1 Pierce CA, Voss B. Efficacy and safety of ibuprofen and acetaminophen in children and adults: a meta-analysis and qualitative review. Ann Pharmacother. March 2010, 44 (3): 489–506. PMID 20150507. S2CID 44669940. doi:10.1345/aph.1M332.
- ^ Meremikwu M, Oyo-Ita A. Paracetamol for treating fever in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2002, 2002 (2): CD003676. PMC 6532671 . PMID 12076499. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003676.
- ^ 20.0 20.1 Ludwig J, McWhinnie H. Antipyretic drugs in patients with fever and infection: literature review. Br J Nurs. May 2019, 28 (10): 610–618. PMID 31116598. S2CID 162182092. doi:10.12968/bjon.2019.28.10.610.
- ^ 21.0 21.1 Marmura MJ, Silberstein SD, Schwedt TJ. The acute treatment of migraine in adults: the american headache society evidence assessment of migraine pharmacotherapies. Headache. January 2015, 55 (1): 3–20. PMID 25600718. S2CID 25576700. doi:10.1111/head.12499.
- ^ 22.0 22.1 Stephens G, Derry S, Moore RA. Paracetamol (acetaminophen) for acute treatment of episodic tension-type headache in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. June 2016, 2019 (6): CD011889. PMC 6457822 . PMID 27306653. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD011889.pub2.
- ^ 23.0 23.1 Mayans L, Walling A. Acute Migraine Headache: Treatment Strategies. Am Fam Physician. February 2018, 97 (4): 243–251. PMID 29671521.
- ^ 24.0 24.1 Haag G, Diener HC, May A, Meyer C, Morck H, Straube A, Wessely P, Evers S. Self-medication of migraine and tension-type headache: summary of the evidence-based recommendations of the Deutsche Migräne und Kopfschmerzgesellschaft (DMKG), the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Neurologie (DGN), the Österreichische Kopfschmerzgesellschaft (ÖKSG) and the Schweizerische Kopfwehgesellschaft (SKG). J Headache Pain. April 2011, 12 (2): 201–217. PMC 3075399 . PMID 21181425. doi:10.1007/s10194-010-0266-4.
- ^ 25.0 25.1 引用錯誤:沒有為名為
pmid24338830
的參考文獻提供內容 - ^ 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 26.4 Machado GC, Maher CG, Ferreira PH, Pinheiro MB, Lin CW, Day RO, McLachlan AJ, Ferreira ML. Efficacy and safety of paracetamol for spinal pain and osteoarthritis: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised placebo-controlled trials.. BMJ. March 2015, 350: h1225. PMC 4381278 . PMID 25828856. doi:10.1136/bmj.h1225.
- ^ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Kolasinski SL, Neogi T, Hochberg MC, Oatis C, Guyatt G, Block J, Callahan L, Copenhaver C, Dodge C, Felson D, Gellar K, Harvey WF, Hawker G, Herzig E, Kwoh CK, Nelson AE, Samuels J, Scanzello C, White D, Wise B, Altman RD, DiRenzo D, Fontanarosa J, Giradi G, Ishimori M, Misra D, Shah AA, Shmagel AK, Thoma LM, Turgunbaev M, Turner AS, Reston J. 2019 American College of Rheumatology/Arthritis Foundation Guideline for the Management of Osteoarthritis of the Hand, Hip, and Knee. Arthritis Care & Research. February 2020, 72 (2): 149–162. PMID 31908149. S2CID 210043648. doi:10.1002/acr.24131. hdl:2027.42/153772 .
- ^ 28.0 28.1 28.2 Qaseem A, Wilt TJ, McLean RM, Forciea MA. Noninvasive Treatments for Acute, Subacute, and Chronic Low Back Pain: A Clinical Practice Guideline From the American College of Physicians. Ann Intern Med. April 2017, 166 (7): 514–530. PMID 28192789. S2CID 207538763. doi:10.7326/M16-2367 .
- ^ 29.0 29.1 Saragiotto BT, Machado GC, Ferreira ML, Pinheiro MB, Abdel Shaheed C, Maher CG. Paracetamol for low back pain. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. June 2016, 6 (6): CD012230. PMC 6353046 . PMID 27271789. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD012230.
- ^ 30.0 30.1 Wiffen PJ, Derry S, Moore RA, McNicol ED, Bell RF, Carr DB, McIntyre M, Wee B. Oral paracetamol (acetaminophen) for cancer pain. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. July 2017, 7 (2): CD012637. PMC 6369932 . PMID 28700092. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD012637.pub2.
- ^ 31.0 31.1 Wiffen PJ, Knaggs R, Derry S, Cole P, Phillips T, Moore RA. Paracetamol (acetaminophen) with or without codeine or dihydrocodeine for neuropathic pain in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. December 2016, 12 (5): CD012227. PMC 6463878 . PMID 28027389. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD012227.pub2.
- ^ Acetaminophen. Health Canada. 11 October 2012 [22 September 2022]. (原始內容存檔於3 November 2022).
- ^ Southey ER, Soares-Weiser K, Kleijnen J. Systematic review and meta-analysis of the clinical safety and tolerability of ibuprofen compared with paracetamol in paediatric pain and fever. Current Medical Research and Opinion. September 2009, 25 (9): 2207–2222 [2 December 2022]. PMID 19606950. S2CID 31653539. doi:10.1185/03007990903116255. (原始內容存檔於3 January 2023).
- ^ Moore RA, Moore N. Paracetamol and pain: the kiloton problem. European Journal of Hospital Pharmacy //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6451482
|PMC=
缺少標題 (幫助). July 2016, 23 (4): 187–188. PMC 6451482 . PMID 31156845. doi:10.1136/ejhpharm-2016-000952 . - ^ 引用錯誤:沒有為名為
pmid31073920
的參考文獻提供內容 - ^ 引用錯誤:沒有為名為
pmid25732175
的參考文獻提供內容 - ^ Paracetamol for adults: painkiller to treat aches, pains and fever. National Health Service. [22 August 2017]. (原始內容存檔於22 August 2017).
- ^ Daly FF, Fountain JS, Murray L, Graudins A, Buckley NA. Guidelines for the management of paracetamol poisoning in Australia and New Zealand—explanation and elaboration. A consensus statement from clinical toxicologists consulting to the Australasian poisons information centres. The Medical Journal of Australia. March 2008, 188 (5): 296–301. PMID 18312195. S2CID 9505802. doi:10.5694/j.1326-5377.2008.tb01625.x.
- ^ Hawkins LC, Edwards JN, Dargan PI. Impact of restricting paracetamol pack sizes on paracetamol poisoning in the United Kingdom: a review of the literature. Drug Saf. 2007, 30 (6): 465–79. PMID 17536874. S2CID 36435353. doi:10.2165/00002018-200730060-00002.
- ^ Larson AM, Polson J, Fontana RJ, Davern TJ, Lalani E, Hynan LS, Reisch JS, Schiødt FV, Ostapowicz G, Shakil AO, Lee WM, Acute Liver Failure Study Group. Acetaminophen-induced acute liver failure: results of a United States multicenter, prospective study. Hepatology. 2005, 42 (6): 1364–72. PMID 16317692. S2CID 24758491. doi:10.1002/hep.20948.
- ^ Mangus BC, Miller MG. Pharmacology application in athletic training. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: F.A. Davis. 2005: 39 [7 September 2017]. ISBN 9780803620278. (原始內容存檔於8 September 2017).
- ^ Eyers SJ. The effect of regular paracetamol on bronchial responsiveness and asthma control in mild to moderate asthma (Ph.D.論文). University of Otago). April 2012 [24 August 2021]. (原始內容存檔於24 August 2021).
- ^ Roy J. Paracetamol – the best selling antipyretic analgesic in the world. An introduction to pharmaceutical sciences: production, chemistry, techniques and technology. Oxford: Biohealthcare. 2011: 270 [24 August 2021]. ISBN 978-1-908818-04-1. (原始內容存檔於24 August 2021).
- ^ Aghababian RV. Essentials of emergency medicine. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. 22 October 2010: 814. ISBN 978-1-4496-1846-9. (原始內容存檔於17 August 2016).
- ^ World Health Organization. The selection and use of essential medicines 2023: web annex A: World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 23rd list (2023). Geneva: World Health Organization. 2023. hdl:10665/371090 . WHO/MHP/HPS/EML/2023.02.
- ^ Hamilton RJ. Tarascon pocket pharmacopoeia : 2013 classic shirt-pocket edition 27th. Burlington, Massachusetts: Jones & Bartlett Learning. 2013: 12. ISBN 9781449665869. (原始內容存檔於8 September 2017).
- ^ The Top 300 of 2022. ClinCalc. [30 August 2024]. (原始內容存檔於30 August 2024).
- ^ Acetaminophen Drug Usage Statistics, United States, 2013 - 2022. ClinCalc. [30 August 2024].
- ^ Li S, Yue J, Dong BR, Yang M, Lin X, Wu T. Acetaminophen (paracetamol) for the common cold in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. July 2013, 2013 (7): CD008800. PMC 7389565 . PMID 23818046. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD008800.pub2.
- ^ de Ridder IR, den Hertog HM, van Gemert HM, Schreuder AH, Ruitenberg A, Maasland EL, Saxena R, van Tuijl JH, Jansen BP, Van den Berg-Vos RM, Vermeij F, Koudstaal PJ, Kappelle LJ, Algra A, van der Worp HB, Dippel DW. PAIS 2 (Paracetamol [Acetaminophen] in Stroke 2): Results of a Randomized, Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Clinical Trial. Stroke. April 2017, 48 (4): 977–982. PMID 28289240. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.116.015957 .
- ^ Deen J, von Seidlein L. Paracetamol for dengue fever: no benefit and potential harm?. Lancet Glob Health. May 2019, 7 (5): e552–e553. PMID 31000122. doi:10.1016/S2214-109X(19)30157-3 .
- ^ Meremikwu M, Oyo-Ita A. Paracetamol for treating fever in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2002, 2002 (2): CD003676. PMC 6532671 . PMID 12076499. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003676.
- ^ 53.0 53.1 53.2 Recommendations. Fever in under 5s: assessment and initial management. nice.org.uk. 7 November 2019. (原始內容存檔於10 February 2021).
- ^ Hashimoto R, Suto M, Tsuji M, Sasaki H, Takehara K, Ishiguro A, Kubota M. Use of antipyretics for preventing febrile seizure recurrence in children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Pediatr. April 2021, 180 (4): 987–997. PMID 33125519. S2CID 225994044. doi:10.1007/s00431-020-03845-8.
- ^ Narayan K, Cooper S, Morphet J, Innes K. Effectiveness of paracetamol versus ibuprofen administration in febrile children: A systematic literature review. J Paediatr Child Health. August 2017, 53 (8): 800–807. PMID 28437025. S2CID 395470. doi:10.1111/jpc.13507.
- ^ Tan E, Braithwaite I, McKinlay CJ, Dalziel SR. Comparison of Acetaminophen (Paracetamol) With Ibuprofen for Treatment of Fever or Pain in Children Younger Than 2 Years: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. JAMA Netw Open. October 2020, 3 (10): e2022398. PMC 7599455 . PMID 33125495. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.22398.
- ^ Bertolini A, Ferrari A, Ottani A, Guerzoni S, Tacchi R, Leone S. Paracetamol: new vistas of an old drug. CNS Drug Rev. 2006, 12 (3–4): 250–75. PMC 6506194 . PMID 17227290. doi:10.1111/j.1527-3458.2006.00250.x.
- ^ Kloppenburg M, Kroon FP, Blanco FJ, Doherty M, Dziedzic KS, Greibrokk E, Haugen IK, Herrero-Beaumont G, Jonsson H, Kjeken I, Maheu E, Ramonda R, Ritt MJ, Smeets W, Smolen JS, Stamm TA, Szekanecz Z, Wittoek R, Carmona L. 2018 update of the EULAR recommendations for the management of hand osteoarthritis. Ann Rheum Dis. January 2019, 78 (1): 16–24. PMID 30154087. doi:10.1136/annrheumdis-2018-213826 .
- ^ Bruyère O, Honvo G, Veronese N, Arden NK, Branco J, Curtis EM, Al-Daghri NM, Herrero-Beaumont G, Martel-Pelletier J, Pelletier JP, Rannou F, Rizzoli R, Roth R, Uebelhart D, Cooper C, Reginster JY. An updated algorithm recommendation for the management of knee osteoarthritis from the European Society for Clinical and Economic Aspects of Osteoporosis, Osteoarthritis and Musculoskeletal Diseases (ESCEO). Semin Arthritis Rheum. December 2019, 49 (3): 337–350. PMID 31126594. doi:10.1016/j.semarthrit.2019.04.008 . hdl:10447/460208 .
- ^ Derry S, Moore RA. Paracetamol (acetaminophen) with or without an antiemetic for acute migraine headaches in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013, 4 (4): CD008040. PMC 4161111 . PMID 23633349. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD008040.pub3.
- ^ Diener HC, Gold M, Hagen M. Use of a fixed combination of acetylsalicylic acid, acetaminophen and caffeine compared with acetaminophen alone in episodic tension-type headache: meta-analysis of four randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover studies. J Headache Pain. November 2014, 15 (1): 76. PMC 4256978 . PMID 25406671. doi:10.1186/1129-2377-15-76 .
- ^ Pergolizzi JV, Magnusson P, LeQuang JA, Gharibo C, Varrassi G. The pharmacological management of dental pain. Expert Opin Pharmacother. April 2020, 21 (5): 591–601. PMID 32027199. S2CID 211046298. doi:10.1080/14656566.2020.1718651.
- ^ Hersh EV, Moore PA, Grosser T, Polomano RC, Farrar JT, Saraghi M, Juska SA, Mitchell CH, Theken KN. Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs and Opioids in Postsurgical Dental Pain. J Dent Res. July 2020, 99 (7): 777–786. PMC 7313348 . PMID 32286125. doi:10.1177/0022034520914254.
- ^ 64.0 64.1 Moore PA, Hersh EV. Combining ibuprofen and acetaminophen for acute pain management after third-molar extractions: translating clinical research to dental practice. J Am Dent Assoc. August 2013, 144 (8): 898–908. PMID 23904576. doi:10.14219/jada.archive.2013.0207.
- ^ Derry CJ, Derry S, Moore RA. Single dose oral ibuprofen plus paracetamol (acetaminophen) for acute postoperative pain. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. June 2013, 2019 (6): CD010210. PMC 6485825 . PMID 23794268. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD010210.pub2.
- ^ Daniels SE, Atkinson HC, Stanescu I, Frampton C. Analgesic Efficacy of an Acetaminophen/Ibuprofen Fixed-dose Combination in Moderate to Severe Postoperative Dental Pain: A Randomized, Double-blind, Parallel-group, Placebo-controlled Trial. Clin Ther. October 2018, 40 (10): 1765–1776.e5. PMID 30245281. doi:10.1016/j.clinthera.2018.08.019 .
- ^ Toms L, Derry S, Moore RA, McQuay HJ. Single dose oral paracetamol (acetaminophen) with codeine for postoperative pain in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. January 2009, 2009 (1): CD001547. PMC 4171965 . PMID 19160199. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001547.pub2.
- ^ Allegaert K. A Critical Review on the Relevance of Paracetamol for Procedural Pain Management in Neonates. Front Pediatr //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7093493
|PMC=
缺少標題 (幫助). 2020, 8: 89. PMC 7093493 . PMID 32257982. doi:10.3389/fped.2020.00089 . - ^ Ohlsson A, Shah PS. Paracetamol (acetaminophen) for prevention or treatment of pain in newborns. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. January 2020, 1 (1): CD011219. PMC 6984663 . PMID 31985830. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD011219.pub4.
- ^ Wuytack F, Smith V, Cleary BJ. Oral non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (single dose) for perineal pain in the early postpartum period. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. January 2021, 1 (1): CD011352. PMC 8092572 . PMID 33427305. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD011352.pub3.
- ^ Sin B, Wai M, Tatunchak T, Motov SM. The Use of Intravenous Acetaminophen for Acute Pain in the Emergency Department. Academic Emergency Medicine. May 2016, 23 (5): 543–53. PMID 26824905. doi:10.1111/acem.12921 .
- ^ Derry CJ, Derry S, Moore RA. Derry S , 編. Caffeine as an analgesic adjuvant for acute pain in adults. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. March 2012, 3 (3): CD009281. PMID 22419343. S2CID 205199173. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009281.pub2.
- ^ Acetaminophen / Paracetamol (PDF). ClinicalKey. 2019年 [2021-03-08]. (原始內容存檔 (PDF)於2021-03-08).
- ^ 74.0 74.1 Hinz, Burkhard; Cheremina, Olga; Brune, Kay. Acetaminophen (paracetamol) is a selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor in man. FASEB journal: official publication of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology. 2008-02, 22 (2): 383–390 [2020-10-24]. ISSN 1530-6860. PMID 17884974. doi:10.1096/fj.07-8506com. (原始內容存檔於2021-03-01).
- ^ Allen, Andrew L. The diagnosis of acetaminophen toxicosis in a cat. The Canadian Veterinary Journal = La Revue Veterinaire Canadienne. 2003-06, 44 (6): 509–510 [2020-10-24]. ISSN 0008-5286. PMC 340185 . PMID 12839249. (原始內容存檔於2021-02-27).
- ^ 76.0 76.1 76.2 Richardson, Jill A. Management of Acetaminophen and Ibuprofen Toxicoses in Dogs and Cats. Journal of Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care. 2000-12, 10 (4): 285–291. ISSN 1479-3261. doi:10.1111/j.1476-4431.2000.tb00013.x (英語).
- ^ 77.0 77.1 Maddison, Jill E.; Stephen W. Page; David Church. Small Animal Clinical Pharmacology. Elsevier Health Sciences. 2002: 260–1. ISBN 978-0702025730.
- ^ 78.0 78.1 78.2 Pardale-V Oral Tablets. NOAH Compendium of Data Sheets for Animal Medicines. The National Office of Animal Health (NOAH). 11 November 2010 [20 January 2011]. (原始內容存檔於2008-11-22).
- ^ Meadows, Irina; Gwaltney-Brant, Sharon. The 10 Most Common Toxicoses in Dogs. Veterinary Medicine. 2006: 142–8 [2019-01-25]. (原始內容存檔於2011-07-10).
- ^ Dunayer, E. Ibuprofen toxicosis in dogs, cats, and ferrets. Veterinary Medicine. 2004: 580–6 [2019-01-25]. (原始內容存檔於2011-07-10).
- ^ Johnston, J. J.; Savarie, P. J.; Primus, T. M.; Eisemann, J. D.; Hurley, J. C.; Kohler, D. J. Risk assessment of an acetaminophen baiting program for chemical control of brown tree snakes on Guam: evaluation of baits, snake residues, and potential primary and secondary hazards. Environmental Science & Technology. 2002-09-01, 36 (17): 3827–3833 [2020-10-24]. ISSN 0013-936X. PMID 12322757. doi:10.1021/es015873n. (原始內容存檔於2020-11-26).
- ^ Brad Lendon. Tylenol-loaded mice dropped from air to control snakes. CNN. 2010-09-07 [2010-09-07]. (原始內容存檔於2010-09-09).
- ^ Sabrina Richards. It's Raining Mice. The Scientist. 2012-05-01 [2019-01-25]. (原始內容存檔於2012-05-15).
參見
外部連結
- 普拿疼資料中心(英文)
- 普拿疼歷史(英文)
- 美國專利第 6,126,967號(英文)
- 普拿疼介紹(英文)
- 普拿疼歷史和化學分析 (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)(英文)
- Julius Axelrod的論文 (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)(英文)
- 普拿疼商標(英文)
- 普拿疼介紹 (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)(繁體中文)
- 必理痛介紹 (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)(繁體中文)
- 普拿疼-值得信賴的品牌 (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)(繁體中文)