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Niagara River
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Bighornedowl/尼加拉河
别名rivière Niagara
Countries
Province / State
流域
流向安大略湖→圣罗伦斯河→圣罗伦斯湾
源头Lake Erie
 • 海拔173.43米（569英尺）[1]
河口Lake Ontario
 • 坐标43°04′41″N 79°04′37″W / 43.078°N 79.077°W / 43.078; -79.077
 • 海拔74.1米（243英尺）[2]
流域面积684,000 km2（264,000 sq mi）[3]
本貌
长度58 km（36 mi）[3]
流量 
 • 平均流量5,796 m3/s（204,700 cu ft/s）[4]
特征
左岸支流Welland River
右岸支流Tonawanda Creek
湿地公约
官方名称Niagara River Corridor
评定时间3 October 2019
参考编码2402[5]
Satellite image of Niagara River flowing north from Lake Erie (bottom) to Lake Ontario (top). The river flows around Grand Island, and then flows over Niagara Falls. It narrows in the Niagara Gorge, where two hydropower reservoirs are visible, and then widens after exiting the gorge. The Welland Canal is visible on the far left.
American Falls with Goat Island to its right

The Niagara River (/naɪˈæɡərə/) is a river that flows north from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario. It forms part of the border between the province of Ontario in Canada (on the west) and the state of New York in the United States (on the east). There are differing theories as to the origin of the river's name. According to Iroquoian scholar Bruce Trigger, Niagara is derived from the name given to a branch of the locally residing native Neutral Confederacy, who are described as being called the Niagagarega people on several late-17th-century French maps of the area.[6] According to George R. Stewart, it comes from the name of an Iroquois town called Ongniaahra, meaning "point of land cut in two".[7]

The river, which is occasionally described as a strait,[8] is about 58千米（36英里） long and includes Niagara Falls in its course. The falls have moved approximately 11千米（6.8英里） upstream from the Niagara Escarpment in the last 12,000 years, resulting in a gorge below the falls. Today, the diversion of the river for electrical generation has significantly reduced the rate of erosion. The total drop in elevation along the river is 99米（325英尺）. The Niagara Gorge extends downstream from the Falls and includes the Niagara Whirlpool and another section of rapids.

Power plants on the river include the Sir Adam Beck Hydroelectric Power Stations (built in 1922 and 1954) on the Canadian side, and the Robert Moses Niagara Power Plant (built in 1961) on the American side. Together, they generate 4.4 gigawatts of electricity. The International Control Works, built in 1954, regulates the river flow. Ships on the Great Lakes use the Welland Canal, part of the Saint Lawrence Seaway, on the Canadian side of the river, to bypass Niagara Falls.

The Niagara River also features two large islands and numerous smaller islands. Grand Island and Navy Island, the two largest islands, are on the American and Canadian sides of the river, respectively. Goat Island and the tiny Luna Island split Niagara Falls into its three sections, the Horseshoe Falls, Bridal Veil Falls, and American Falls. Unity Island lies further upstream, alongside the city of Buffalo.

The Niagara River and its tributaries, Tonawanda Creek and the Welland River, formed part of the last section of the Erie Canal and Welland Canal. After leaving Lockport, New York, the Erie Canal proceeds southwest until it enters Tonawanda Creek. After entering the Niagara River, watercraft then proceed southward to the final lock, where a short section of the canal allows boats to avoid the turbulent shoal water at the river intake and enter Lake Erie. The Welland Canals used the Welland River as a connection to the Niagara River south of the falls, allowing water traffic to safely re-enter the Niagara River and proceed to Lake Erie.

History

 
Watercolour by Elizabeth Simcoe depicting the Niagara River from Queenston Heights, ca. 1793
 
Niagara River at Queenston, Ontario, then known as Queenstown, Upper Canada, c. 1805 watercolour

The Niagara River and Falls have been known outside of North America since the late 17th century, when Father Louis Hennepin, a French explorer, first witnessed them. He wrote about his travels in A New Discovery of a Vast Country in America (1698).[9]

The Niagara River was the site of the earliest recorded railway in America. It was an inclined wooden tramway built by John Montresor (1736–1799), a British military engineer, in 1764. Called "The Cradles" and "The Old Lewiston Incline," it featured loaded carts pulled up wooden rails by rope. It facilitated the movement of goods over the Niagara Escarpment in present-day Lewiston, New York.[10]

In 1781, the Niagara Purchase was signed, involving in a six-and-a-half kilometre-wide strip of land bordering on the west bank of the Niagara River, connecting Lake Erie and Lake Ontario.[11]

Several battles occurred along the Niagara River, which was historically defended by Fort George (Canadian side) and Fort Niagara (American side) at the mouth of the river and Fort Erie (Canadian side) at the head of the river. These forts were important during the Seven Years' War (known as the French and Indian War in the United States) and the American Revolutionary War. The Battle of Queenston Heights took place near the river in the War of 1812.

The river was an important route to liberation before the American Civil War, when many African-Americans escaping slavery on the Underground Railroad crossed it to find freedom in Canada. The Freedom Crossing Monument stands on the bank of the river in Lewiston to commemorate the courage of the escaping slaves and the local volunteers who helped them secretly cross the river.

In the 1880s, the Niagara River became the first waterway in North America harnessed for large-scale generation of hydroelectricity.[12]

On the Canadian side of the river the provincial agency Niagara Parks Commission maintains all of the shoreline property, including Fort Erie, except the sites of Fort George (a National Historic Site maintained federally by Parks Canada), as a public greenspace and environmental heritage.

On the American side, the New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation maintains several state parks adjacent to Niagara Falls and the Niagara River.

Today, the river is the namesake of Niagara Herald Extraordinary at the Canadian Heraldic Authority.

Cities and settlements

 
Whirlpool Aero Car crossing Niagara Whirlpool
 
Warning sign at Niagara Falls, Ontario

Cities and towns along the Niagara River include:

Name Country
Buffalo   美国
Chippawa   加拿大
Fort Erie   加拿大
Lewiston   美国
Grand Island   美国
Niagara Falls   美国
Niagara Falls   加拿大
Niagara-on-the-Lake   加拿大
North Tonawanda   美国
Porter   美国
Queenston   加拿大
Tonawanda (City)   美国
Tonawanda (Town)   美国
Wheatfield   美国
Youngstown   美国

Pollution

The Niagara River is listed as a Great Lakes Areas of Concern in The Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement between the United States and Canada.

Crossings

主条目：List of crossings of the Niagara River

The Niagara River has a long history of both road and rail bridges spanning the river, both upstream and downstream of the Falls. This history includes numerous bridges that have fallen victim to the harsh conditions of the Niagara Gorge, such as landslides and icepacks.

Parks

 
Niagara Glen features many rapids downstream of Niagara Falls

The following parks are located along the Niagara River:

Name Country
Beaver Island State Park   美国
Bowen Road Park   加拿大
Broderick Park   美国
Browns Point Park   加拿大
Buckhorn Island State Park   美国
De Veaux Woods State Park   美国
Dufferin Islands Natural Area   加拿大
Earl W. Brydges Artpark State Park   美国
Falkner Park   美国
Fisherman's Park   美国
Floral Clock Park   加拿大
Fort George National Historic Site   加拿大
Fort Niagara State Park   美国
Gratwick Riverside Park   美国
Griffon Park   美国
Jayne Park   美国
Joseph Davis State Park   美国
King's Bridge Park   加拿大
MacFarland Park   加拿大
Niagara Falls State Park   美国
Niagara Glen Nature Reserve   加拿大
Niagara Parks Botanical Gardens   加拿大
Niawanda Park[13]   美国
Nike Base Park   美国
Queen's Parade Park & Memorial Park   加拿大
Queenston Heights   加拿大
Riverside Park   美国
Strawberry Island State Park   美国
Sugar Bowl Park   加拿大
Veterans Memorial Park   美国
Queen Victoria Park   加拿大
Whirlpool State Park   美国

A Niagara River Greenway Plan is in progress in the United States.

Hydrologic features

使用下方服务在地图上显示本章节的坐标： OpenStreetMap

下载坐标为：

Hydrologic Features of the Niagara River
Feature Location Country Notes Photo
Source of Niagara River 42°54′16″N 78°54′21″W / 42.904325°N 78.905869°W / 42.904325; -78.905869   加拿大
  美国 		The Niagara River originates at the north-east end of Lake Erie, and flows north to its mouth at Lake Ontario.  
Black Rock Canal 42°54′25″N 78°54′07″W / 42.90706°N 78.902053°W / 42.90706; -78.902053   美国 Black Rock Canal flows within and parallel to the east shore of the Niagara river near Buffalo, New York, and was built to extend the navigation period in the Niagara River through a greater part of the winter.[14] The canal begins at Buffalo Harbor, on the north-east shore of Lake Erie, then flows north, ending at the Black Rock Lock near the north tip of Unity Island. The canal is buffered from the Niagara River by Bird Island Pier at its south end, and Unity Island at its north end.  
Gould Ditch 42°55′14″N 78°54′42″W / 42.920689°N 78.911785°W / 42.920689; -78.911785   加拿大 Historic tributary. Once served as a drainage ditch for Gould National Battery plant.[15]
Scajaquada Creek 42°55′45″N 78°53′57″W / 42.929091°N 78.899056°W / 42.929091; -78.899056   美国 Tributary.  
Frenchman's Creek 42°56′34″N 78°55′39″W / 42.942648°N 78.927391°W / 42.942648; -78.927391   加拿大 Tributary.
Chippawa Channel 42°57′12″N 78°56′15″W / 42.953344°N 78.937626°W / 42.953344; -78.937626   加拿大
  美国 		The north-flowing Niagara River bifurcates at the south tip of Grand Island (both sections rejoin at the north tip). "Chippawa Channel" is the river passage on the west side of Grand Island.
Miller Creek 42°57′19″N 78°58′31″W / 42.955315°N 78.97537°W / 42.955315; -78.97537   加拿大 Tributary.
Tonawanda Channel 42°57′39″N 78°55′46″W / 42.960757°N 78.929386°W / 42.960757; -78.929386   美国 When the Niagara River bifurcates at Grand Island, the east passage—from the south tip of Grand Island, to a point just north of Tonawanda, New York—is the "Tonawanda Channel".
Baker Creek 42°58′22″N 79°00′29″W / 42.972761°N 79.008039°W / 42.972761; -79.008039   加拿大 Tributary.
Black Creek 42°58′52″N 79°01′25″W / 42.980999°N 79.023499°W / 42.980999; -79.023499   加拿大 Tributary.
Boyer's Creek 43°00′07″N 79°01′46″W / 43.00194°N 79.029508°W / 43.00194; -79.029508   加拿大 Tributary.
Two Mile Creek 43°00′39″N 78°54′24″W / 43.010845°N 78.906555°W / 43.010845; -78.906555   美国 Tributary.
Little River (at Tonawanda Island) 43°01′23″N 78°53′06″W / 43.022926°N 78.884969°W / 43.022926; -78.884969   美国 Flows between Tonawanda Island and the New York mainland, within the Tonawanda Channel.
Tonawanda Creek 43°01′24″N 78°52′54″W / 43.02338°N 78.881707°W / 43.02338; -78.881707   美国 Tributary.  
Spicer Creek 43°01′31″N 78°53′39″W / 43.025279°N 78.894153°W / 43.025279; -78.894153   美国 Tributary on Grand Island, New York.
Big Sixmile Creek 43°01′35″N 79°00′42″W / 43.026494°N 79.011773°W / 43.026494; -79.011773   美国 Tributary on Grand Island, New York.
Little Sixmile Creek 43°01′43″N 79°00′37″W / 43.028502°N 79.010217°W / 43.028502; -79.010217   美国 Tributary on Grand Island, New York.
Niagara River Channel 43°02′09″N 78°53′38″W / 43.035772°N 78.893809°W / 43.035772; -78.893809   美国 When the Niagara River bifurcates at Grand Island, the east passage—from a point just north of Tonawanda, New York, to the north tip of Grand Island—is the "Niagara River Channel".  
Gun Creek 43°02′58″N 78°54′57″W / 43.049455°N 78.915728°W / 43.049455; -78.915728   美国 Tributary on Grand Island, New York.
Usshers Creek 43°03′05″N 79°01′21″W / 43.051282°N 79.022577°W / 43.051282; -79.022577   加拿大 Tributary.
Burnt Ship Creek 43°03′40″N 78°59′51″W / 43.060987°N 78.997493°W / 43.060987; -78.997493   美国 Tributary on Grand Island, New York.
Woods Creek 43°03′44″N 78°58′37″W / 43.062335°N 78.976958°W / 43.062335; -78.976958   美国 Tributary on Grand Island, New York.  
Welland River 43°03′46″N 79°02′53″W / 43.062711°N 79.047961°W / 43.062711; -79.047961   加拿大 Historic tributary. Became a man-made distributary—from the Niagara River to a point 5 km west—in order to supply water to an intake channel for Sir Adam Beck Hydroelectric Power Stations.
Underwater intake tunnel to Sir Adam Beck Hydroelectric Power Stations 43°04′02″N 79°03′14″W / 43.067124°N 79.053959°W / 43.067124; -79.053959   加拿大  
Little River (at Cayuga Island) 43°04′23″N 78°57′06″W / 43.073167°N 78.951724°W / 43.073167; -78.951724   美国 Flows between Cayuga Island and the New York mainland, within the Niagara River Channel.
Cayuga Creek 43°04′33″N 78°57′46″W / 43.075894°N 78.962753°W / 43.075894; -78.962753   美国 Tributary.
Underwater intake for tunnel to Niagara Power Project 43°04′38″N 79°00′57″W / 43.07725°N 79.015796°W / 43.07725; -79.015796   美国  
Horseshoe Falls 43°04′38″N 79°04′30″W / 43.077289°N 79.075127°W / 43.077289; -79.075127   加拿大 Located between the Canadian mainland and Goat Island, New York, the Horseshoe Falls is the largest, and most south-western of three parallel waterfalls over-which the Niagara River flows. There is dispute as to whether the Horseshoe Falls lies entirely within Canada (see Niagara Falls#History).  
Gill Creek 43°04′42″N 79°01′33″W / 43.078292°N 79.025838°W / 43.078292; -79.025838   美国 Tributary.
Goat Island Channel 43°04′50″N 79°03′38″W / 43.080612°N 79.060535°W / 43.080612; -79.060535   美国 The Niagara River bifurcates at the south-east tip of Goat Island. "Goat Island Channel" is the north-east passage around the island.  
Bridal Veil Falls 43°05′02″N 79°04′15″W / 43.083781°N 79.070776°W / 43.083781; -79.070776   美国 Located between Goat Island and Luna Island, Bridal Veil Falls is the smallest (and middle) of the three parallel waterfalls over-which the Niagara River flows. It is entirely within the US.  
American Falls 43°05′06″N 79°04′10″W / 43.084866°N 79.069462°W / 43.084866; -79.069462   美国 Located between Luna Island and the New York mainland, the American Falls is the most northern and second largest of three parallel waterfalls over-which the Niagara River flows. It is located entirely within the US.  
Muddy Run Falls 43°06′54″N 79°03′45″W / 43.114972°N 79.06252°W / 43.114972; -79.06252   加拿大 Historic tributary which entered the Niagara River as a waterfall from the top of the Niagara Gorge. Development above Muddy Run Falls destroyed its water supply.
Whirlpool Rapids 43°06′58″N 79°03′45″W / 43.116006°N 79.062488°W / 43.116006; -79.062488   加拿大
  美国 		 
Colt's Creek Falls 43°07′11″N 79°04′19″W / 43.119757°N 79.071929°W / 43.119757; -79.071929   加拿大 Tributary which enters the Niagara River as a waterfall from the top of the Niagara Gorge. The volume was greatly diminished following construction of the canal to Sir Adam Beck Hydroelectric Power Stations.
Niagara Whirlpool 43°07′13″N 79°04′10″W / 43.120219°N 79.069526°W / 43.120219; -79.069526   加拿大
  美国 		The Niagara Whirlpool is a natural whirlpool along the Niagara River located along the Canada–US border between New York and Ontario. The whirlpool is located in the Niagara Gorge, downstream from Niagara Falls. The whirlpool's greatest depth is 125 feet (38 m).[16]  
Harvie Falls 43°07′19″N 79°04′28″W / 43.12206°N 79.074311°W / 43.12206; -79.074311   加拿大 Tributary which enters the Niagara River as a waterfall from the top of the Niagara Gorge. The volume was greatly diminished following construction of the canal to Sir Adam Beck Hydroelectric Power Stations.
Devil's Hole Rapids 43°08′01″N 79°03′03″W / 43.133547°N 79.050901°W / 43.133547; -79.050901   加拿大
  美国 		 
Bloody Run Falls 43°08′06″N 79°02′50″W / 43.134987°N 79.047275°W / 43.134987; -79.047275   美国 Tributary which enters the Niagara River as a waterfall from the top of the Niagara Gorge. The volume was greatly diminished following construction of Robert Moses State Parkway and other streets above the falls.  
Niagara Power Project 43°08′35″N 79°02′23″W / 43.142957°N 79.039807°W / 43.142957; -79.039807   美国  
Sir Adam Beck Hydroelectric Power Stations 43°08′51″N 79°02′39″W / 43.147419°N 79.04406°W / 43.147419; -79.04406   加拿大  
Smeaton Falls 43°09′23″N 79°02′46″W / 43.156275°N 79.045998°W / 43.156275; -79.045998   加拿大 Tributary which enters the Niagara River as a waterfall from the top of the Niagara Gorge. The volume was greatly diminished following the construction of Sir Adam Beck Hydroelectric Power Stations.  
Spring Cave Cascade 43°09′26″N 79°02′40″W / 43.157348°N 79.044372°W / 43.157348; -79.044372   美国 Historic tributary which entered the Niagara River as a cascade from caves in the wall of the Niagara Gorge. Its source was destroyed following construction of the Niagara Power Project.
Fish Creek Falls 43°09′32″N 79°02′41″W / 43.159018°N 79.04459°W / 43.159018; -79.04459   美国 Tributary which enters the Niagara River as a waterfall from the top of the Niagara Gorge. The volume was greatly diminished following the construction of the Niagara Power Project.
Locust Grove Falls 43°09′33″N 79°02′51″W / 43.159183°N 79.047532°W / 43.159183; -79.047532   加拿大 Tributary which enters the Niagara River as a waterfall from the top of the Niagara Gorge. The volume was greatly diminished following the construction of Sir Adam Beck Hydroelectric Power Stations.  
Mouth of Niagara River 43°15′46″N 79°04′14″W / 43.262722°N 79.070646°W / 43.262722; -79.070646   加拿大
  美国 		 

Islands

Several islands are located on the upper river upriver from the falls:

Name Location Country Status Notes
Bird Island Buffalo   美国 Filled in Connected to Unity Island in 1822 as part of improvements to Black Rock harbor.[17]
Brig Island Niagara Falls   美国 Park Part of Niagara Falls State Park.
Brother Island Niagara Falls   美国 Park Located near Niagara Falls and the Three Sisters Islands; part of Niagara Falls State Park.
Buckhorn Island Grand Island   美国 Park Located on the north end of Grand Island. A state park.
Cayuga Island Niagara Falls   美国 Residential Located at the mouth of Cayuga Creek; a residential neighborhood of the city.
Cedar Island Niagara Falls   加拿大 Filled in Filled in by the creation of the Rankine Generating Station by Canadian Niagara Power Company in 1905.
Conners Island Niagara Falls   美国 Filled in Also known in some sources as "Coroner Island".[18] Filled in sometime in the 1950s or early '60s.[19][20] Currently the site of the Niagara Power Station Intake.[21]
Deer Island Niagara Falls   美国
Dufferin Islands Niagara Falls   加拿大 Park Man-made islands. Parkland.
Goat Island Niagara Falls   美国 Park Located at the brink of the American Falls, named by John Stedman in the 1770s; briefly renamed to Iris Island by General Augustus Porter, a United States Commissioner (after the Greek Goddess of the Rainbow). Now part of Niagara Falls State Park.
Goose Island City of Tonawanda   美国 Man-made/filled in Was located at the confluence of Tonawanda Creek and the Tonawanda Channel of the Niagara River. Existed from 1825, when the Erie Canal was constructed (thereby cutting Goose Island off from the mainland) until the 1940s, when this portion of the canal was filled in.
Grand Island   美国 Developed The largest island on the river; includes several parks, but is mostly residential and industrial; originally called Ga-We-Not (Great Island) by the Seneca.
Grass Island Niagara Falls   美国 Filled in Filled in during the 1960s to create the Robert Moses Parkway at Point Day.
Green Island Niagara Falls   美国 Park Originally called Bath Island, it was renamed in the early 1900s for Niagara Reservation Commissioner Andrew H. Green. Part of Niagara Falls State Park.
Gull Island Niagara Falls   加拿大 Park Located near the wreck of the Old Scow in Canadian waters.
Hogg Island Niagara Falls   加拿大 Filled in Filled in by the creation of the Chippawa Queenston Power Canal in 1917 and finally by the Sir Adam Beck Dam #2 in 1950 by the Hydro Electric Power Commission of Ontario.
Little Beaver Island Grand Island   美国 Park Located off the south end of Grand Island; part of Beaver Island State Park.
Luna Island Niagara Falls   美国 Park Located next to Goat Island; originally called Prospect Island. Part of Niagara Falls State Park.
Motor Island Grand Island   美国 Park Also known as Pirates' Island (the name of a private club once located there) and Frog Island (not to be confused with the former Frog Island listed below).[22] A New York State Wildlife Management Area.
Navy Island Niagara Falls   加拿大 Park Designated as a National Historic Park.
Rattlesnake Island Town of Tonawanda   美国 Filled in Was located just south of what is today the South Grand Island Bridge. Was filled in sometime between 1915[23] and 1927,[24] concurrent with the heavy industrial development of the area.
Robinson Island Niagara Falls   美国 Park Named for daredevil Joel Robinson in 1860. Now part of Niagara Falls State Park.
Ship Island Niagara Falls   美国 Park Part of Niagara Falls State Park.
Stony Island Niagara Falls   美国 Unknown Shown in the 1908 New Century Atlas of Niagara and Orleans County but not mentioned in any other source.[21] Supposedly located just offshore from the mouth of Gill Creek.[18] No longer extant, if it ever was.
Strawberry Island Town of Tonawanda   美国 Park A small island, formerly much larger but diminished by gravel mining and erosion.[25] An undeveloped state park and wildlife preserve.[26]
Tern Island   美国 Submerged/reconstructed Originally known as Frog Island; was located in the Upper Niagara River between Motor and Strawberry Islands; disappeared sometime between 1951 and 1985 due to erosion.[27] Re-created as a habitat for fish, aquatic plants, and waterfowl[28][29] including a nesting colony of common terns established in 2021, for whom the new island was named.[30]
Three Sisters Islands Niagara Falls   美国 Park Located next to Goat Island within Niagara Falls State Park. Originally called Moss Islands, they were later renamed for the three daughters of War of 1812 United States Army General Parkhurst Whitney (Asenath, Angeline and Celinda Eliza) in 1843.
Tonawanda Island North Tonawanda   美国 Developed Occupied by a marina and several industries.
Tower Island Niagara Falls   美国 Man-made Man-made island created in 1942 and completed in 1954 by the US Army Corps of Engineers to construct International Control Dam.[31]
Unity Island Buffalo   美国 Developed Home to Broderick Park, Unity Island Park, and a waste-water treatment facility.
Willow Island Niagara Falls   美国 Man-made/filled in Man-made island created in 1759 by Daniel Joncairs and filled in during the 1960s to create the Robert Moses Parkway.

Military posts

United States Coast Guard Fort Niagara Station was once a United States Army post. There are no Canadian Coast Guard posts along the river. Fort Mississauga, Fort George and Fort Erie are former British and Canadian military forts (last used 1953, 1965 and 1923 respectively) and are now parks.

Navy Island Royal Naval Shipyard was used by French in 18th Century as a naval base and by Royal Navy from 1763 as a small shipyard and abandoned around 1818 after the ratification of the Rush–Bagot Treaty in 1817.

Roads

On the Canadian side the Niagara Parkway travels along the River from Lake Ontario to Lake Erie.

  18F号纽约州州道 lines the river on the state side from Fort Niagara to Lewiston.   Niagara Scenic Parkway on the state side only travels along the River from the Falls to Lewiston. The remaining river sections (with some interruptions) are covered by the   LaSalle Expressway,   384号纽约州州道,   266号纽约州州道 and    190号州际公路（Niagara Thruway）／New York Thruway.

See also

References

  1. ^ Inferred from Lake Erie. Retrieved 2021-01-30.
  2. ^ Inferred from Lake Ontario. Retrieved 2021-01-30.
  3. ^ 3.0 3.1 Facts & Figures - Niagara Parks, Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada. [May 30, 2007]. （原始内容 (online)存档于December 9, 2003）. 
  4. ^ Water Resources Data New York Water Year 2003, Volume 3: Western New York, USGS
  5. ^ Niagara River Corridor. Ramsar Sites Information Service. [9 January 2020]. （原始内容存档于14 January 2020）. 
  6. ^ Bruce Trigger, The Children of Aataentsic (McGill-Queen's University Press, Kingston and Montreal,1987, ISBN 0-7735-0626-8), p. 95.
  7. ^ Stewart, George R. (1967) Names on the Land. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company; p. 83.
  8. ^ Mobot.org
  9. ^ Hennepin, Louis. A New Discovery of a Vast Country in America. Chicago: A.C. McClurg & Co., 1903. Accessed December 8, 2008.
  10. ^ Porter, Peter. Landmarks of the Niagara Frontier. The Author. 1914. 
  11. ^ Niagara Purchase | The Canadian Encyclopedia. www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca. [2021-10-13]. 
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  13. ^ Google Inc. Niawanda Park (地图). Google Inc. September 4, 2018 [September 4, 2018]. 
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  19. ^ https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/img4/ht_icons/Browse/NY/NY_Niagara%20Falls_128711_1949_24000.jpg
  20. ^ https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/img4/ht_icons/Browse/NY/NY_Niagara%20Falls_128712_1965_24000.jpg
  21. ^ 21.0 21.1 Linnabery, Ann Marie. NIAGARA DISCOVERIES: The lost islands of the Niagara River. Lockport Union-Sun & Journal. January 28, 2017 [July 14, 2018]. 
  22. ^ Island Dispatch, 16th June 1989
  23. ^ Tonawanda Town 8, Riverside Land Company, Atlas: Buffalo 1915 Vol 3 Suburban, New York Historical Map. 
  24. ^ County Map Atlas No. 8. （原始内容存档于October 2, 2006）. 
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  26. ^ Grand Island: NYPA approves contract for Strawberry Island wetland restoration, habitat improvement. Niagara Frontier Publications. March 30, 2015 [April 11, 2016].  参数|newspaper=与模板{{cite web}}不匹配（建议改用{{cite news}}或|website=） (帮助)
  27. ^ http://niagara.nypa.gov/EcologicalStandingCommittee[永久失效链接]
  28. ^ Pignataro, T.J. Restoration of Frog Island hailed as Buffalo comeback story. The Buffalo News. August 22, 2015 [April 10, 2016]. （原始内容存档于August 23, 2015）.  参数|newspaper=与模板{{cite web}}不匹配（建议改用{{cite news}}或|website=） (帮助)
  29. ^ Frog Island Habitat Restoration. October 2013. 
  30. ^ Sotelo, Gabriella. Nesting Common Terns Get a New Island Home in Buffalo. Audubon. September 2, 2021. 
  31. ^ Niagara River Islands History - Tower Island, Niagara Falls USA. 3 February 2017 [2019-10-01]. （原始内容存档于2019-10-01）. 
  • Tiplin, Albert H.; Seibel, George A. and Seibel, Olive M. (1988) Our romantic Niagara: a geological history of the river and the falls Niagara Falls Heritage Foundation, Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada, ISBN 0-9690457-2-7

Further reading

 
维基共享资源上的相关多媒体资源：Bighornedowl/尼加拉河
 
英文维基文库中的《1911年版大英百科全书》条目：Niagara

Template:Ramsar sites in the United States

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