注意缺陷多动障碍的诊断
注意缺陷多动障碍的诊断是根据患者的行为和心理发展的评鉴并且排除毒品、药物的影响、或其他生理或心理的可能造成类似ADHD症状的因素而成。[1]诊断过程通常会将个案的父母意见及师长意见列入考量。[2]大多数的诊断都是因为个案的教师首先对于孩子的健康提出关切,经转介后而成。[3] 注意缺陷多动障碍的症状可能会被认为是人类个性光谱的极端或是其中一环而已。[4] 对于ADHD的药物反应结果,无法就此确认诊断或排除诊断。迄今为止学界尚未得到一致的ADHD与非ADHD之脑部构造的差异结论,因此脑部造影只被用于对于复杂的人脑进一步的研究,尚未能应用于诊断ADHD。[5]使用量化脑波 (QEEG) 诊断ADHD是学界中正在研究的领域之一,然而迄今为止,脑波经过量化后的数值与ADHD之间的关系仍然不明。[6][7]
注意缺陷多动障碍又可细分为以下三种类型:注意力不足(专注力失调)为主型、过动-冲动为主型、或注意力不足(专注力失调)且过动-冲动的混合型。[8]过动,即为“过度”活跃。过度两字意味着活跃的程度已经对生活造成不良的影响。[9]即便个案并无注意缺陷多动障碍的所有特征,他仍有可能是ADHD患者,有无全部特征牵涉到是否有其他共病存在且治疗的主要目的在于协助患者避免缺点并发扬优点。成人及儿童青少年的注意缺陷多动障碍的诊断依据《精神障碍诊断与统计手册》(DSM)的标准、患者的历史经历(个案史)[8]、门诊病人的主诉、症状学、发展史、家族史、共病、生理评估及各种医师评估后认为需要进一步的检查等[10]。
ADHD隶属于神经发育所致之精神疾患[11][12]。 ADHD和对立违抗障碍状、品行障碍和反社会人格障碍同隶属于紊乱行为综合症[13]。ADHD的诊断并不暗指任何一个神经系统疾病[14]。医师在诊断过程中必须衡量个案的焦虑、抑郁程度、及对立违抗障碍、品行障碍、及学习障碍和语言障碍。其他考量的问题包括:其他神经发育障碍、抽动综合症、和睡眠呼吸暂停[15]。
自我评量表,例如:ADHD 评量表和Vanderbilt ADHD诊断评量表会在诊断和评估ADHD的过程中使用。[16]
精神障碍诊断与统计手册
根据最新的精神障碍诊断与统计手册第五版(DSM-V),以下表列之症状至少在一个类别中拥有六个项目(成人为至少五项[17])并必须持续至少六个月且其程度高于多数同年龄层之同侪。除此之外,以下表列之症状必须在至少两种不同的情境下(例如:社交、课业/工作、家庭、朋友之间、亲戚之间、或其他场合/活动)造成问题并有明确证据证明这些症状确实影响或降低患者在学校、社交或工作的应对能力与学校生活、社交生活及工作生活的品质,且这些条件必须出现在大约十二岁以前。[18] 再者,这些症状无法被其他心理疾病更好地定义、解释(例如:情感障碍、焦虑症、解离性障碍或人格障碍)。[19]另外,诊断者须确保个案的这些症状不只出现于个案的(若有)精神分裂症或其他思觉失调的(发病)病程中。[20]
“注意力缺失”为主的注意缺陷多动障碍
一个未满17岁,以注意力不足(专注力失调)为主的注意缺陷多动障碍患者拥有下表中至少六项的症状[19](17岁以上为至少五项[17]),且非由其他医学疾病直接造成。[18]除此之外,症状持续至少六个月而且这些症状与患者所处年纪应该展现的发展成熟度不符。[19]
- 难以认知细微的细节、或在学校、工作、或其他活动上经常不够细心、或容易粗心甚至犯下无心之过。[19]
- 难以持续对于一件事情或游戏保持专注。[19]
- 经常没有遵从指示且难以完成或(如期)缴交家庭作业、日常琐事、应该做的事(责任)、职务要求、杂务、或乏味的例行工作。[19]
- 经常丢失完成任务或活动所需的东西(例如:铅笔、课本、考卷、水壶、钥匙、学习用品、书本、工具器材、眼镜、手机、纸本文书等)。[19]
- 在做一件重要的事情时容易分心,或被其他比较不重要的事情吸引。[19]
- 当他人跟患者说话时,患者似乎没在听其说话。[19]
- 难以组织筹画许多任务或活动。[19]
- 不喜欢、经常避免、不情愿、或需要勉强自己去做那些需要长时间动脑的事情(例如:课业、家庭作业、在学事务)。[19]
- 容易分心或容易把注意力放错地方。[19]
- 健忘、容易忘记那些每天都会做的事情/例行公事(daily routine)。[19]
“过动-冲动”为主的注意缺陷多动障碍
一个未满17岁,以注意力不足(专注力失调)为主的注意缺陷多动障碍患者拥有下表中至少六项的症状(17岁以上为至少五项[17]),且非由其他医学疾病直接造成。[18]除此之外,症状持续至少六个月,再者这些症状与患者所处年纪应该展现的发展成熟度不符而且对患者本身或他人造成困扰(disruptive)。[19]
- 坐在椅子上动来动去、在位置上用手指头敲打东西、 或用脚趾头敲打地板。[19]
- 不停地讲话,讲话的频繁度超出正常范围。[19]
- 四处东奔西跑、碰触或玩弄视野内的任一或每一个物体。(青少年或成人则为:感到不安宁、感觉静不下来、闲不下来)[19]
- 一直在移动、做动作或“正在做某事”,似乎一直被马达给驱动着。[19]
- 难以安静的参与或从事休闲活动。[19]
- 常常在还没听完或看完问题的时候就脱口说出自己认为的答案或冲动、急于作答。[19]
- 难以忍受延迟的满足、难耐在游戏或其他事情中因轮流所产生的等待时间。[19]
- 经常干扰他人或“闯入”他人之间的对话、活动或游戏等活动。[19]
- 经常在被预期应该长时间坐着的情况下离开座位(例如:在图书馆常常离席、在演讲场合常常离席、在上课时间/吃饭时间/做功课的时间或听故事时间无法乖乖坐好)。[19]
在青少年及成年的注意缺陷多动障碍患者中,过动的症状往往随着社会化及年龄的增长而转变为内在的不安宁[12]。
若个案同时满足“‘注意力缺失’为主的注意缺陷多动障碍”和“‘过动-冲动’为主的注意缺陷多动障碍”的诊断标准,则该个案属于“注意缺陷多动障碍‘混合型’”。[19]
一位求诊患者即便在过去六个月中,症状数量较诊断准则少,但若曾经完全符合诊断准则且症状仍导致多重情境下(例如:工作、学业及社会等)功能减损之状态,仍可能符合注意缺陷多动障碍的诊断。此乃注意缺陷多动障碍的部分缓解。[21] ADHD的严重度则以表列症状的多寡及程度、是否存在少数几个特别严重的症状、和/或 ADHD对于患者的执行功能(社交、学业、职业工作的应对能力/功能)的减损程度判断。[21]
儿童及成人之注意缺陷多动障碍诊断必须由受过专业训练的医疗团队(例如儿童精神科医师团队)才可,否则容易受到误诊与处方,这相当危险。[22][23][24][注 1]
国际疾病分类
以下为2010年出版之《国际疾病分类 第十版》(ICD-10, International Classification of Disease-10,又称为国际通用的疾病分类表)第五章节:
心理与行为疾病(F00-F99)[注 1]
- 年纪轻轻(通常在零到五岁的时候)就出现难以持续进行一件需要动脑的活动、常常一件事情还没做到一个段落就跳到另一个事情去,并伴随组织与规划能力的不足、听从指示上的困难、过多的活动。[25]
- ADHD可能与其他疾病共病。[25]
- 患有过度活跃症的孩子通常较冲动、没有三思而后行。因此容易发生意外。听从指示上的困难通常起因于没有三思而后行,刻意造反相较之下的可能性较低。[25]
- 患者对成人的沟通交流(相处)可能是毫无保留的,缺乏正常的戒心与保守。患者可能在群体之中不受欢迎且受到孤立。[25]
- 认知功能的不足是常见的,运动和语言发展上的延迟、迟缓更是频繁。[25]
- 次要的并发症包含未“社会化”(社会无法接受)的行为以及低自尊心。[25]
ICD-11
已经于2018年六月发行、预定在2019年中提交世界卫生组织大会(WHA)审核的ICD-11 (ICD 第十一版)准正式版中,注意缺陷多动障碍归类于6A05(ADHD)的类别里,而该注意缺陷多动障碍类别中对ADHD的定义暨介绍已趋近现时之DSM-5。[26][27]
成年注意缺陷多动障碍患者
成人注意缺陷多动障碍(Adult ADHD;AADHD;Adult ADD;AADD)其实是注意缺陷多动障碍的症状从幼年延续到成年期,并不是成年后才出现的疾病。其症状基本上仍未脱离分心、过动-冲动的核心概念,只是表现方式有很多(比起幼年期更为多样),一般大众不一定能将这些多样的表现型式与ADHD的核心症状相连结。成人注意缺陷多动障碍及成人自闭症也是台湾儿童与青少年精神医学科医师培训过程中的重点科目[注 1]。
世界卫生组织的《成人ADHD自填量表症状检核表》(简称ASRS)就有列出成人注意缺陷多动障碍的一些可能症状,其中分别依“注意力缺损”及“过动/冲动”二种表现型进行归纳[28]。
研究发现,儿童青少年时期的ADHD症状若未经治疗,超过六成进入成年期后仍有明显症状[29]。随着年龄增加,症状的表现将较为多变,举例来说:青少年或成人ADHD的“过动”症状极可能以“非常浮躁”或“把别人弄得精疲力竭”等方式呈现。[30]
生物标记研究
数篇关于ADHD生物标记的回顾性研究指出,ADHD患者的血小板单胺氧化酶表现型(expression)、尿液中的正肾上腺素、尿液中的MHPG和尿液中的苯乙胺浓度都与由“非ADHD患者”组成的对照组不同。[31]检测上述这些项目可能可以作为是否有ADHD的诊断生理标记(diagnostic biomarkers),简言之就是作为诊断ADHD的重要参考。然而这部分正处于研究阶段,尚需更多研究与实验来确立这方面利用的可行性[31]。ADHD患者尿液中的苯乙胺浓度、血浆中的苯乙胺浓度皆较“非ADHD患者”及“服用苯丙胺或哌甲酯治疗的ADHD患者”来得低。已知苯丙胺和哌甲酯会增加苯乙胺在体内的合成。特别是那些对苯丙胺和哌甲酯有反应的ADHD患者[31][32]。偏低的尿液中苯乙胺浓度与ADHD患者“不专心(inattentiveness)”的症状相关。[31]。当今的脑波检测还不够精准到足以用来当作诊断的重要依据[33]。
脑部造影
由于关于ADHD的脑部结构之神经影像学仍处于广泛的研究发展阶段,迄今为止学界尚未得到一致的ADHD与非ADHD之脑部构造的差异结论。除此之外,一名ADHD与另一名ADHD的脑部内造结构仍不完全相同。因此脑部造影只被用于对于复杂的人脑进一步的研究,尚未能应用于诊断ADHD。[34]
备注
参见
文献来源
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Although there is little direct evidence, changes in trace amines, in particular PE, have been identified as a possible factor for the onset of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). … Further, amphetamines, which have clinical utility in ADHD, are good ligands at trace amine receptors. Of possible relevance in this aspect is modafanil, which has shown beneficial effects in ADHD patients and has been reported to enhance the activity of PE at TAAR1. Conversely, methylphenidate, …showed poor efficacy at the TAAR1 receptor. In this respect it is worth noting that the enhancement of functioning at TAAR1 seen with modafanil was not a result of a direct interaction with TAAR1.
- ^ Al Rahbi, HA; Al-Sabri, RM; Chitme, HR. Interventions by pharmacists in out-patient pharmaceutical care.. Saudi pharmaceutical journal : SPJ : the official publication of the Saudi Pharmaceutical Society. April 2014, 22 (2): 101–6. PMC 3950532 . PMID 24648820. doi:10.1016/j.jsps.2013.04.001.
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