水煙

水菸（英語：hookah；印度斯坦语：हुक़्क़ा （天城文）、حقّہ（波斯体）、國際音標：[ˈɦʊqqaː]）又稱胡卡，是一種菸草和抽菸用裝置。人们用水烟抽鸦片、大麻属、烟叶等。

起源

有关水煙的起源有两种理论。第一种认为在耶稣会把烟草带到了中世纪印度之后，来自阿克巴的波斯物理学家Abu'l-Fath Gilani在印度的在蒙兀兒王朝时期的法泰赫普尔西克里城市发明了水煙管^[1]^[2]。水煙从南亚次大陆先传至波斯，形成了今天的形状，然后传播至近东地区。^[3] 另一种理论认为水煙起源于波斯的萨非王朝，^[4]^[5] 随后逐渐向东传播至印度^[6]^[7]。

「胡卡」這個印度斯坦语的稱呼，源自于阿拉伯语的水煙「حُقَّة‎」（ḥuqqa）。

文化

中國

摘取霜冻后呈鲜红色的水菸叶，切碎，加亚麻籽油，浸透，压成四尺见方，用压榨机榨出油份，然后刨成薄片，放入模子内压成饼状。

比较昂贵的水菸，采取未经霜冻的绿色菸叶，加入少许绿石末，和入亚麻籽油，其余程序同上。^[8]

水菸壺（泰語：บ้อง; 英語：Bong）是中國傳統的吸菸方式。十六世紀後經絲綢之路傳入泰國、越南、中國等，流行於明代末年，盛行於清代、民國時期。水菸壺主要有兩種：

竹管形：通常是在農村自製的，使用長度約70厘米的竹管，一端是開通的，另一端是封閉的。在從封閉處起測量竹管四分之一長度的位置，在那位置鑽一個小孔，之後在那小孔斜插一個小竹管，再用牛皮膠、橡膠圈、環氧樹脂等在接觸點封口。在國外，藝術家或工匠亦會用吹製玻璃或丙烯酸製成竹管形水菸壺。
金屬鶴形：通常當中國人想到的水菸壺就是金屬鶴形的。慈禧太后是喜好這類的水菸壺。

風險

很多人以為水菸經水過濾、且味道比香菸淡，故此對健康的損害低於香菸，但這種想法是錯誤的。世衛^[9]、美國的马约诊所^[10]及加州大學舊金山分校^[11]等研究證實，水菸對身體的損害不亞於香菸；水菸產生的有害物質，甚至比某些種類的香菸多。

參考文獻

^ 引用错误：没有为名为Sivaramakrishnan4-5的参考文献提供内容
^ The Wealth of India. Council of Scientific & Industrial Research. 1976 [2007-08-01]. （原始内容存档于2013-10-09）. The smoking of hookah and hubble-bubble started in India during the reign of the great Moghul emperor, Akbar
^ Khaled Aljarrah; Zaid Q Ababneh; Wael K Al-Delaimy. Perceptions of hookah smoking harmfulness: predictors and characteristics among current hookah users. Tobacco Induced Diseases. 2009, 5 (1): 16. ISSN 1617-9625. PMC 2806861  . PMID 20021672. doi:10.1186/1617-9625-5-16. Hookahs originated in India in the 15th century and then spread to the Near East countries. Hookahs spread first to Persia and underwent further changes to its original shape to the current known shape. In the middle of the 16th century, hookahs reached the Ottoman Empire, Egypt, and other Mediterranean regions.
^ ḠALYĀN – Encyclopaedia Iranica. www.iranicaonline.org. [2019-05-29]. （原始内容存档于2012-01-27）. It seems, therfore, [sic] that Abu’l-Fatḥ Gīlānī should be credited with the introduction of the ḡalyān, already in use in Persia, to India.
^ Nichola Fletcher. Charlemagne's tablecloth: a piquant history of feasting. Macmillan. 1 Aug 2005: 10 [2020-04-26]. ISBN 9780312340681. （原始内容存档于2020-08-06）.
^ Sandra Alters; Wendy Schiff. Essential Concepts for Healthy Living Update. Jones & Bartlett Learning. 28 Jan 2011 [2020-04-26]. ISBN 9780763789756. （原始内容存档于2020-08-06）.
^ Prakash C. Gupta. Control of tobacco-related cancers and other diseases: proceedings of an international symposium, January 15–19, 1990, TIFR, Bombay. Prakash C. Gupta. 1992: 33 [2020-04-26]. ISBN 9780195629613. （原始内容存档于2020-08-06）.
^ 柔克义《喇嘛之乡》 Land of The Lamas p35
^ 存档副本. [2010-02-01]. （原始内容存档于2009-05-01）.
^ 存档副本. [2010-02-01]. （原始内容存档于2010-02-08）.
^ UCSF報告：水菸比香菸更有害. [2013-12-31]. （原始内容存档于2014-01-01）.

外部連結

Water Pipe around the world （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） Water pipe in the world.

https://investinwillows.com （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
https://clickkhongthuocla.vn （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
（[//web.archive.org/web/20090811025254/http://travel.sohu.com/20060411/n242752996.shtml 页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）中国民间水烟袋大观[组图]-搜狐旅游
竹筒能做水煙袋七彩雲南（页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
烟草在线---父亲的水烟筒［图］（页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
哈尼族水烟筒_工艺_中国民族文化网
光緒二十四年　吸食水菸筒──臺灣記憶 Taiwan Memory--國家圖書館：圖像-台北市老照片

[Sivaramakrishnan4-5-1] 引用错误：没有为名为Sivaramakrishnan4-5的参考文献提供内容

[Wealth-2] The Wealth of India. Council of Scientific & Industrial Research. 1976 [2007-08-01]. （原始内容存档于2013-10-09）. The smoking of hookah and hubble-bubble started in India during the reign of the great Moghul emperor, Akbar

[Aljarrah2009-3] Khaled Aljarrah; Zaid Q Ababneh; Wael K Al-Delaimy. Perceptions of hookah smoking harmfulness: predictors and characteristics among current hookah users. Tobacco Induced Diseases. 2009, 5 (1): 16. ISSN 1617-9625. PMC 2806861  . PMID 20021672. doi:10.1186/1617-9625-5-16. Hookahs originated in India in the 15th century and then spread to the Near East countries. Hookahs spread first to Persia and underwent further changes to its original shape to the current known shape. In the middle of the 16th century, hookahs reached the Ottoman Empire, Egypt, and other Mediterranean regions.

[4] ḠALYĀN – Encyclopaedia Iranica. www.iranicaonline.org. [2019-05-29]. （原始内容存档于2012-01-27）. It seems, therfore, [sic] that Abu’l-Fatḥ Gīlānī should be credited with the introduction of the ḡalyān, already in use in Persia, to India.

[5] Nichola Fletcher. Charlemagne's tablecloth: a piquant history of feasting. Macmillan. 1 Aug 2005: 10 [2020-04-26]. ISBN 9780312340681. （原始内容存档于2020-08-06）.

[common-6] Sandra Alters; Wendy Schiff. Essential Concepts for Healthy Living Update. Jones & Bartlett Learning. 28 Jan 2011 [2020-04-26]. ISBN 9780763789756. （原始内容存档于2020-08-06）.

[7] Prakash C. Gupta. Control of tobacco-related cancers and other diseases: proceedings of an international symposium, January 15–19, 1990, TIFR, Bombay. Prakash C. Gupta. 1992: 33 [2020-04-26]. ISBN 9780195629613. （原始内容存档于2020-08-06）.

[8] 柔克义《喇嘛之乡》 Land of The Lamas p35

[9] 存档副本. [2010-02-01]. （原始内容存档于2009-05-01）.

[10] 存档副本. [2010-02-01]. （原始内容存档于2010-02-08）.

[11] UCSF報告：水菸比香菸更有害. [2013-12-31]. （原始内容存档于2014-01-01）.

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